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First Intifada

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This article is about the 1987–1993 Palestinian uprising against Israel. For the 1999–2004 Sahrawi uprising against Morocco, see First Sahrawi Intifada.
First Intifada
Part of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Top, bottom:
Date9 December 1987 – 13 September 1993
(5 years, 9 months and 5 days)
Location
Result Uprising suppressed[1]
Territorial
changes		 Creation of the West Bank "Areas" by the Oslo II Accord in 1995
Belligerents
 Israel

Palestinian civil society

Al-Qiyada al-Muwhhada
Commanders and leaders
Casualties and losses
179–200 killed by Palestinians[4] 1,962 killed[5]
  • 1,603 killed by Israelis[5]
  • 359 killed by Palestinians[5]

The First Intifada (Arabic: الانتفاضة الأولى, romanized: al-Intifāḍa al-’Ūlā, lit. 'The First Uprising'), also known as the First Palestinian Intifada,[4][6] was a sustained series of non-violent protests, acts of civil disobedience and riots carried out by Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories and Israel.[7][8] It was motivated by collective Palestinian frustration over Israel's military occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip as it approached a twenty-year mark, having begun in the wake of the 1967 Arab–Israeli War.[9] The uprising lasted from December 1987 until the Madrid Conference of 1991, though some date its conclusion to 1993, the year the Oslo Accords were signed.[4]

The Intifada began on 9 December 1987[10] in the Jabalia refugee camp after an Israeli truck driver collided with parked civilian vehicles, killing four Palestinian workers, three of whom were from the refugee camp.[11][12] Palestinians charged that the collision was a deliberate response for the killing of an Israeli in Gaza days earlier.[13] Israel denied that the crash, which came at time of heightened tensions, was intentional or coordinated.[12] The Palestinian response was characterized by protests, civil disobedience, and violence.[14][15] There was graffiti, barricading,[16][17] and widespread throwing of stones and Molotov cocktails at the Israeli army and its infrastructure within the West Bank and Gaza Strip. These contrasted with civil efforts including general strikes, boycotts of Israeli Civil Administration institutions in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, an economic boycott consisting of refusal to work in Israeli settlements on Israeli products, refusal to pay taxes, and refusal to drive Palestinian cars with Israeli licenses.

Israel deployed some 80,000 soldiers in response. Israeli countermeasures, which initially included the use of live rounds frequently in cases of riots, were criticized by Human Rights Watch as disproportionate, in addition to Israel's excessive use of lethal force.[18] In the first 13 months, 332 Palestinians and 12 Israelis were killed.[19][20] Images of soldiers beating adolescents with clubs then led to the adoption of firing semi-lethal plastic bullets.[19] During the whole six-year intifada, the Israeli army killed at least 1,087 Palestinians, of which 240 were children.[21]

Among Israelis, 100 civilians and 60 Israeli soldiers were killed,[22] often by militants outside the control of the Intifada's UNLU,[23] and more than 1,400 Israeli civilians and 1,700 soldiers were injured.[24] Intra-Palestinian violence was also a prominent feature of the Intifada, with widespread executions of an estimated 822 Palestinians killed as alleged Israeli collaborators (1988–April 1994).[25] At the time Israel reportedly obtained information from some 18,000 Palestinians who had been compromised,[26] although fewer than half had any proven contact with the Israeli authorities.[27] The ensuing Second Intifada took place from September 2000 to 2005.

Background

According to Mubarak Awad, a Palestinian American clinical psychologist, the Intifada was a protest against Israeli repression including "beatings, shootings, killings, house demolitions, uprooting of trees, deportations, extended imprisonments, and detentions without trial".[28] In the years prior to the Intifada, Awad had been "among the keenest advocates for nonviolent struggle", founding the Palestinian Center for the Study of Nonviolence.[8] After Israel's capture of the West Bank, Jerusalem, Sinai Peninsula, and Gaza Strip from Jordan and Egypt in the Six-Day War in 1967, frustration grew among Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied territories. Israel opened its labor market to Palestinians in the newly occupied territories, who were recruited mainly to do unskilled or semi-skilled labor jobs Israelis did not want. By the time of the Intifada, over 40 percent of the Palestinian workforce worked in Israel daily. Additionally, Israeli expropriation of Palestinian land, high birthrates in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the limited allocation of land for new building and agriculture created conditions marked by growing population density and rising unemployment, even for those with university degrees. At the time of the Intifada, only one in eight college-educated Palestinians could find degree-related work.[29] This was coupled with an expansion of a Palestinian university system catering to people from refugee camps, villages, and small towns, generating a new Palestinian elite from a lower social strata that was more activistic and confrontational with Israel.[30] According to Israeli historian and diplomat Shlomo Ben-Ami in his book Scars of War, Wounds of Peace, the Intifada was also a rebellion against the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Ben-Ami describes the PLO as uncompromising and reliant on international terrorism, which he says exacerbated Palestinian grievances.[31]

The Israeli Labor Party's Yitzhak Rabin, then Defense Minister, added deportations in August 1985 to Israel's "Iron Fist" policy of cracking down on Palestinian nationalism.[32] This, which led to 50 deportations in the following 4 years,[33] was accompanied by economic integration and increasing Israeli settlements, such that the Jewish settler population in the West Bank alone nearly doubled from 35,000 in 1984 to 64,000 in 1988, reaching 130,000 by the mid-nineties.[34] Referring to the developments, Israeli minister of Economics and Finance, Gad Ya'acobi, stated that "a creeping process of de facto annexation" contributed to a growing militancy in Palestinian society.[35]

During the 1980s a number of mainstream Israeli politicians referred to policies of transferring the Palestinian population out of the territories, leading to Palestinian fears that Israel planned to evict them. Public statements calling for transfer of the Palestinian population were made by Deputy Defense Minister Michael Dekel, Cabinet Minister Mordechai Tzipori and government Minister Yosef Shapira among others.[34] Describing the causes of the Intifada, Benny Morris refers to the "all-pervading element of humiliation", caused by the protracted occupation which he says was "always a brutal and mortifying experience for the occupied" and was "founded on brute force, repression and fear, collaboration and treachery, beatings and torture chambers, and daily intimidation, humiliation, and manipulation."[36]

Trigger for the uprising

Protests in the Gaza Strip at the onset of the First Intifada in 1987

While the catalyst for the First Intifada is generally dated to a truck incident involving several Palestinian fatalities at the Erez Crossing in December 1987,[37] Mazin Qumsiyeh argues, against Donald Neff, that it began with multiple youth demonstrations earlier in the preceding month.[38] Some sources consider that the perceived IDF failure in late November 1987 to stop a Palestinian guerrilla operation, the Night of the Gliders, in which six Israeli soldiers were killed, helped catalyze local Palestinians to rebel.[37][39][40]

Mass demonstrations had occurred a year earlier when, after two Gaza students at Birzeit University had been shot by Israeli soldiers on campus on 4 December 1986, the Israelis responded with harsh punitive measures, involving summary arrest, detention, and systematic beatings of handcuffed Palestinian youths, ex-prisoners and activists, some 250 of whom were detained in four cells inside a converted army camp, known popularly as Ansar 11, outside Gaza City.[41] A policy of deportation was introduced to intimidate activists in January 1987. Violence simmered as a schoolboy from Khan Yunis was shot dead by Israeli soldiers pursuing him in a Jeep. Over the summer the IDF's Lieutenant Ron Tal, who was responsible for guarding detainees at Ansar 11, was shot dead at point-blank range while stuck in a Gaza traffic jam. A curfew forbidding Gaza residents from leaving their homes was imposed for three days, during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Adha. In two incidents on 1 and 6 October 1987, the IDF ambushed and killed seven Gaza men, reportedly affiliated with Islamic Jihad, who had escaped from prison in May.[42] Some days later, a 17-year-old schoolgirl, Intisar al-'Attar, was shot in the back while in her schoolyard in Deir al-Balah by a settler in the Gaza Strip, who claimed the girl had been throwing stones.[43] The Arab summit in Amman in November 1987 focused on the Iran–Iraq War, and the Palestinian issue was shunted to the sidelines for the first time in years.[44][45]

Timeline of the Intifada

An IDF soldier requesting a resident of Jabalia to erase a slogan on a wall during the First Intifada.

Israel's occupation and Palestinian unrest

Israel's drive into the occupied territories had occasioned spontaneous acts of resistance, but the administration, pursuing an "iron fist" policy of collective punishment including deportations, demolition of homes, curfews, collective punishment, and the suppression of political and educational institutions, was confident that Palestinian resistance was exhausted. The assessment that the unrest would collapse proved to be mistaken.[46][47][48][49]

An improvised tire-puncturing device (slang term 'Ninja') comprising an iron nail inserted into a rubber disc (from used tire). Many of these makeshift weapons were scattered by Palestinians on main roads in the occupied territories of the West Bank during the First Intifada.

On 8 December 1987, an Israeli truck crashed into a row of cars containing Palestinians returning from working in Israel, at the Erez checkpoint. Four Palestinians, three of them residents of the Jabalya refugee camp, the largest of the eight refugee camps in the Gaza Strip, were killed and seven others seriously injured. The traffic incident was witnessed by hundreds of Palestinian labourers returning home from work.[50] The funerals, attended by 10,000 people from the camp that evening, quickly led to a large demonstration. Rumours swept the camp that the incident was an act of intentional retaliation for the stabbing to death of an Israeli businessman, killed while shopping in Gaza two days earlier.[51][52] The next day, December 9, Palestinian teenagers threw stones and, according to the IDF, also gasoline bombs,[note 1] at military vehicles. The soldiers started shooting in response, killing 17 year-old Hatem Al-Sesi and wounding 16 others.[53][54][55][56]

On 9 December, several popular and professional Palestinian leaders held a press conference in West Jerusalem with the Israeli League for Human and Civil Rights in response to the deterioration of the situation. While they convened, reports came in that demonstrations at the Jabalya camp were underway and that a 17-year-old Palestinian had been shot to death by Israeli soldiers (after, as the IDF claimed, a group of Palestinians threw gasoline bombs at an IDF vehicle). He would later become known as the first martyr of the Intifada.[57][58] Protests rapidly spread into the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Youths took control of neighbourhoods, closed off camps with barricades of garbage, stone and burning tires, meeting soldiers who endeavoured to break through with petrol bombs. Palestinian shopkeepers closed their businesses, and labourers refused to turn up to their work in Israel. Israel defined these activities as 'riots', and justified the repression as necessary to restore 'law and order'.[59] Within days the occupied territories were engulfed in a wave of demonstrations and commercial strikes on an unprecedented scale. Specific elements of the occupation were targeted for attack: military vehicles, Israeli buses and Israeli banks. None of the dozen Israeli settlements were attacked and there were no Israeli fatalities from stone-throwing at cars at this early period of the outbreak.[60] Equally unprecedented was the extent of mass participation in these disturbances: tens of thousands of civilians, including women and children. The Israeli security forces used the full panoply of crowd control measures to try and quell the disturbances: cudgels, nightsticks, tear gas, water cannons, rubber bullets, and live ammunition. But the disturbances only gathered momentum.[61]

Soon there was widespread rock-throwing, road-blocking and tire burning throughout the territories. By 12 December, six Palestinians had died and 30 had been injured in the violence. The next day, rioters threw a gasoline bomb at the U.S. consulate in East Jerusalem, though no one was hurt.[58] The Israeli police and military response also led to a number of injuries and deaths. The IDF killed many Palestinians at the beginning of the Intifada, the majority killed during demonstrations and riots. Since initially a high proportion of those killed were civilians and youths, Yitzhak Rabin adopted a fallback policy of 'might, power and beatings'.[62] Israel used mass arrests of Palestinians, engaged in collective punishments like closing down West Bank universities for most years of the Intifada, and West Bank schools for a total of 12 months. Hebron University was closed by the army from January 1988 to June 1991.[63] Round-the-clock curfews were imposed over 1600 times in just the first year. Communities were cut off from supplies of water, electricity and fuel. At any one time, 25,000 Palestinians would be confined to their homes. Trees were uprooted on Palestinians farms, and agricultural produce blocked from being sold. In the first year over 1,000 Palestinians had their homes either demolished or blocked up. Settlers also engaged in private attacks on Palestinians. Palestinian refusals to pay taxes were met with confiscations of property and licenses, new car taxes, and heavy fines for any family whose members had been identified as stone-throwers.[64]

Casualties

Barricades during the Intifada

In the first year in the Gaza Strip alone, 142 Palestinians were killed, while no Israelis died. 77 were shot dead, and 37 died from tear-gas inhalation. 17 died from beatings at the hand of Israeli police or soldiers.[65] During the whole six-year intifada, the Israeli army killed from 1,087 to 1,204 (or 1,284)[21][66][67] Palestinians, 241/332[67] being children. Tens of thousands were arrested (some sources said 57,000;[19][67] others said 120,000),[68] 481 were deported while 2,532 had their houses razed to the ground.[67] Between December 1987 and June 1991, 120,000 were injured, 15,000 arrested and 1,882 homes demolished.[69] One journalistic calculation reports that in the Gaza Strip alone from 1988 to 1993, some 60,706 Palestinians suffered injuries from shootings, beatings or tear gas.[70] In the first five weeks alone, 35 Palestinians were killed and some 1,200 wounded. Some regarded the Israeli response as encouraging more Palestinians into participating.[71] B'Tselem calculated 179 Israelis killed, while official Israeli statistics place the total at 200 over the same period. 3,100 Israelis, 1,700 of them soldiers, and 1,400 civilians suffered injuries.[70] By 1990 Ktzi'ot Prison in the Negev held approximately one out of every 50 West Bank and Gazan males older than 16 years.[72] Gerald Kaufman remarked: "[F]riends of Israel as well as foes have been shocked and saddened by that country's response to the disturbances."[73] In an article in the London Review of Books, John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt asserted that IDF soldiers were given truncheons and encouraged to break the bones of Palestinian protesters. The Swedish branch of Save the Children estimated that "23,600 to 29,900 children required medical treatment for their beating injuries in the first two years of the Intifada", one third of whom were children under the age of ten years.[74]

Israel adopted a policy of arresting key representatives of Palestinian institutions. After lawyers in Gaza went on strike to protest their inability to visit their detained clients, Israel detained the deputy head of its association without trial for six months. Dr. Zakariya al-Agha, the head of the Gaza Medical Association, was likewise arrested and held for a similar period of detention, as were several women active in Women's Work Committees. During Ramadan, many camps in Gaza were placed under curfew for weeks, impeding residents from buying food, and Al-Shati, Jabalya and Burayj were subjected to saturation bombing by tear gas. During the first year of the Intifada, the total number of casualties in the camps from such bombing totalled 16.[75]

Between 1988 and 1992, intra-Palestinian violence claimed the lives of nearly 1,000.[76] By June 1990, according to Benny Morris, "[T]he Intifada seemed to have lost direction. A symptom of the PLO's frustration was the great increase in the killing of suspected collaborators."[77] Roughly 18,000 Palestinians, compromised by Israeli intelligence, are said to have given information to the other side.[26] Collaborators were threatened with death or ostracism unless they desisted, and if their collaboration with the Occupying Power continued, were executed by special troops such as the "Black Panthers" and "Red Eagles". An estimated 771 (according to Associated Press) to 942 (according to the IDF) Palestinians were executed on suspicion of collaboration during the span of the Intifada.[78]

Palestinian leadership

The Intifada was not initiated by any single individual or organization. Local leadership came from groups and organizations affiliated with the PLO that operated within the Occupied Territories; Fatah, the Popular Front, the Democratic Front and the Palestine Communist Party.[79] The PLO's rivals in this activity were the Islamic organizations, Hamas and Islamic Jihad as well as local leadership in cities such as Beit Sahour and Bethlehem. However, the Intifada was predominantly led by community councils led by Hanan Ashrawi, Faisal Husseini and Haidar Abdel-Shafi, that promoted independent networks for education (underground schools as the regular schools were closed by the military in reprisal), medical care, and food aid.[80] The Unified National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU) gained credibility where the Palestinian society complied with the issued communiques.[79] There was a collective commitment to abstain from lethal violence, a notable departure from past practice,[81] which, according to Shalev arose from a calculation that recourse to arms would lead to an Israeli bloodbath and undermine the support they had in Israeli liberal quarters. The PLO and its chairman Yassir Arafat had also decided on an unarmed strategy, in the expectation that negotiations at that time would lead to an agreement with Israel.[65] The First Intifada was largely peaceful and non-violent, and it has been described as a "quiet revolution" by Mary King.[8] The non-violent efforts of the first intiPearlman attributes the non-violent character of the uprising to the movement's internal organization and its capillary outreach to neighborhood committees that ensured that lethal revenge would not be the response even in the face of Israeli state repression.[82] Hamas and Islamic Jihad cooperated with the leadership at the outset, and throughout the first year of the uprising conducted no armed attacks, except for the stabbing of a soldier in October 1988, and the detonation of two roadside bombs, which had no impact.[83]

Pivot to the two-state solution

Leaflets publicizing the Intifada's aims demanded the complete withdrawal of Israel from the territories it had occupied in 1967: the lifting of curfews and checkpoints; it appealed to Palestinians to join in civic resistance, while asking them not to employ arms, since military resistance would only invite devastating retaliation from Israel; it also called for the establishment of the Palestinian state on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, abandoning the standard rhetorical calls, still current at the time, for the "liberation" of all of Palestine.[84]

Other notable events

Assassination of Abu Jihad

On 16 April 1988, a leader of the PLO, Khalil al-Wazir, nom de guerre Abu Jihad or 'Father of the Struggle', was assassinated in Tunis by an Israeli commando squad. Israel claimed he was the 'remote-control "main organizer" of the revolt', and perhaps believed that his death would break the back of the Intifada. During the mass demonstrations and mourning in Gaza that followed, two of the main mosques of Gaza were raided by the IDF and worshippers were beaten and tear-gassed.[85] In total between 11 and 15 Palestinians were killed during the demonstrations and riots in Gaza and West Bank that followed al-Wazir's death.[86] In June of that year, the Arab League agreed to support the Intifada financially at the 1988 Arab League summit. The Arab League reaffirmed its financial support in the 1989 summit.[87]

Israeli defense minister Yitzhak Rabin's response was: "We will teach them there is a price for refusing the laws of Israel."[88] When time in prison did not stop the activists, Israel crushed the boycott by imposing heavy fines and seizing and disposing of equipment, furnishings, and goods from local stores, factories and homes.[89]

1990 Temple Mount killings

On 8 October 1990, 22 Palestinians were killed by Israeli police during the 1990 Temple Mount killings at Al-Aqsa. This led the Palestinians to adopt more lethal tactics, with three Israeli civilians and one IDF soldier stabbed in Jerusalem and Gaza two weeks later. Incidents of stabbing persisted.[90] The Israeli state apparatus carried out contradictory and conflicting policies that were seen to have injured Israel's own interests, such as the closing of educational establishments (putting more youths onto the streets) and issuing the Shin Bet list of collaborators.[91] Suicide bombings by Palestinian militants started on 16 April 1993 with the Mehola Junction bombing, carried at the end of the Intifada.[92]

Response by the United Nations

The large number of Palestinian casualties provoked international condemnation. In subsequent resolutions, including 607 and 608, the Security Council demanded Israel cease deportations of Palestinians. In November 1988, Israel was condemned by a large majority of the UN General Assembly for its actions against the Intifada. The resolution was repeated in the following years.[93]

Security Council

On 17 February 1989, the UN Security Council drafted a resolution condemning Israel for disregarding Security Council resolutions, as well as for not complying with the fourth Geneva Convention. The United States, put a veto on a draft resolution which would have strongly deplored it. On 9 June, the US again put a veto on a resolution. On 7 November, the US vetoed a third draft resolution, condemning alleged Israeli violations of human rights[94]

On 14 October 1990, Israel openly declared that it would not abide Security Council Resolution 672 because it did not pay attention to attacks on Jewish worshippers at the Western Wall.[95] Israel refused to receive a delegation of the Secretary-General, which would investigate Israeli violence. The following Resolution 673 made little impression and Israel kept on obstructing UN investigations.[96]

Reactions and outcome

Impact on Israeli-Palestinian conflict

The Intifada was recognized as an occasion where the Palestinians acted cohesively and independently of their leadership or assistance of neighboring Arab states.[97][98][6] It transformed the conflict, helping bring about the Madrid Conference of 1991 and the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993.[8][99][100]

The success of the Intifada gave Arafat and his followers the confidence they needed to moderate their political program. At the meeting of the Palestine National Council in Algiers in mid-November 1988, Arafat won a majority for the historic decision to recognize Israel's legitimacy, accept all the relevant UN resolutions going back to 29 November 1947, and adopt the principle of a two-state solution based on 1967 borders.[101]

Reflecting on the impact of the Intifada, former United States President Jimmy Carter wrote that, "The Palestinians' nonviolent resistance in the First Intifada ... contested military occupation from a store of classic methods used on every continent in today's world, as people fight for human rights and justice with concern for the connection between the ends and means."[8] He added that, "the use of concerted nonviolent action offers a basis for transformation of conflict to peace building."[8]

The founder of the Palestinian Center for the Study of Nonviolence, Jerusalem-born Mubarak Awad, played a major role in advocating for and organizing civil disobedience campaigns against the Israel's occupation in the years prior to the First Intifada.[8] Following the outbreak of the Intifada, Israel arrested and deported Awad in 1988, despite opposition from the Reagan administration.[102][103] Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir ordered Awad's expulsion on grounds of inciting a "civil uprising" and distributing leaflets that advocated for non-violent resistance and civil disobedience.[102]

Palestinian politician and leader of the Palestinian National Initiative party, Dr. Mustafa Barghouti, attributed the foundations of the First Intifada to the rise of grassroots, local committees across the occupied Palestinian territories in the 1970s. He argued that, "Hamas became radicalized by the brutality of the Occupation, by the violence used to repress the first Intifada."[104] Barghouti has contended the "militarization" of the Second Intifada, which began in 2000, was a mistake, and he criticized Fatah for failing to condemn suicide bombings at the time.[105][106]

Impact on Israel's reputation

The Intifada broke the image of Jerusalem as a united Israeli city. There was unprecedented international coverage, and the Israeli response was criticized in media outlets and international fora.[97][107][108] The impact on the Israeli services sector, including the important Israeli tourist industry, was notably negative.[109]

Jordan severs ties with the West Bank

Jordan severed its residual administrative and financial ties to the West Bank in the face of sweeping popular support for the PLO.[110] The failure of the "Iron Fist" policy, Israel's deteriorating international image, Jordan cutting legal and administrative ties to the West Bank, and the U.S.'s recognition of the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people forced Rabin to seek an end to the violence though negotiation and dialogue with the PLO.[111][112]

Timeline of the Palestinian uprisings

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Israeli military said at least two gasoline bombs landed on the army patrol vehicle but they did not explode

References

  1. ^ Kober, Avi, Israel's Wars of Attrition: Attrition Challenges to Democratic States, p. 165
  2. ^ Murphy, Kim (10 September 1993). "Israel and PLO, in Historic Bid for Peace, Agree to Mutual Recognition". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
  3. ^ "Profile: Marwan Barghouti". BBC News. 26 November 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
  4. ^ a b c Nami Nasrallah, 'The First and Second Palestinian intifadas,' in David Newman, Joel Peters (eds.) Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Routledge, 2013, pp. 56–68, p. 56.
  5. ^ a b c Kober, Avi (2005). "From Blitzkrieg To Attrition: Israel's Attrition Strategy and Staying Power". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 16 (2): 216–240. doi:10.1080/09592310500080005.
  6. ^ a b Eitan Alimi (9 January 2007). Israeli Politics and the First Palestinian Intifada: Political Opportunities, Framing Processes and Contentious Politics. Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-203-96126-1.
  7. ^ "Intifada begins on Gaza Strip". History.com. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g King, Mary E. (2007). A quiet revolution: the first Palestinian Intifada and nonviolent resistance. New York: Nation Books. ISBN 978-1-56025-802-5. OCLC 150378515. The book's foreword, written by President Jimmy Carter: "The Palestinians' nonviolent resistance in the first intifada, documented here, contested military occupation from a store of classic methods used on every continent in today's world, as people fight for human rights and justice with concern for the connection between the ends and means. The joint grassroots Israeli-Palestinian committees were imagining a future that can yet be created. As Palestinian local leaders rebutted the empty premises of violent ideologies, strong efforts should have been made by the international community to fortify their resolve, which could have weakened the extremism that brought violence. How little encouragement was offered to those who were working for abandonment of the mythologies of violence!" {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 56 (help)
  9. ^ Lockman; Beinin (1989), p. 5.
  10. ^ Edward Said (1989). Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation. South End Press. pp. 5–22. ISBN 978-0-89608-363-9.
  11. ^ Berman 2011, p. 41.
  12. ^ a b Omer-Man, Michael (4 December 2011). "The accident that sparked an Intifada". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
  13. ^ David McDowall,Palestine and Israel: The Uprising and Beyond, University of California Press, 1989 p. 1
  14. ^ Ruth Margolies Beitler, The Path to Mass Rebellion: An Analysis of Two Intifadas, Lexington Books, 2004 p.xi.
  15. ^ Lustick, Ian S. (1993). Brynen, Rex; Hiltermann, Joost R.; Hudson, Michael C.; Hunter, F. Robert; Lockman, Zachary; Beinin, Joel; McDowall, David; Nassar, Jamal R.; Heacock, Roger (eds.). "Writing the Intifada: Collective Action in the Occupied Territories". World Politics. 45 (4): 560–594. doi:10.2307/2950709. ISSN 0043-8871. JSTOR 2950709. S2CID 147140028.
  16. ^ "Palestinian intifada". BBC NEWS. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
  17. ^ Salem, Walid (2008). "Human Security from Below: Palestinian Citizens Protection Strategies, 1988–2005". In den Boer, Monica; de Wilde, Jaap (eds.). The Viability of Human Security. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 179–201., on p. 190.
  18. ^ "The Israeli Army and the Intifada – Policies that Contribute to the Killings". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  19. ^ a b c Audrey Kurth Cronin 'Endless wars and no surrender,' in Holger Afflerbach, Hew Strachan (eds.) How Fighting Ends: A History of Surrender, Oxford University Press 2012 pp. 417–433 p. 426.
  20. ^ Wendy Pearlman, Violence, Nonviolence, and the Palestinian National Movement,Cambridge University Press 2011, p. 114.
  21. ^ a b "Fatalities in the first Intifada". B'tselem. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  22. ^ B'Tselem Statistics; Fatalities in the first Intifada.
  23. ^ Mient Jan Faber, Mary Kaldor, 'The deterioration of human security in Palestine,' in Mary Martin, Mary Kaldor (eds.) The European Union and Human Security: External Interventions and Missions, Routledge, 2009 pp. 95–111.
  24. ^ 'Intifada,' in David Seddon, (ed.)A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East, Taylor & Francis 2004, p. 284.
  25. ^ Human Rights Watch, Israel, the Occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the Palestinian Authority Territories, November, 2001. Vol. 13, No. 4(E), p. 49
  26. ^ a b Amitabh Pal, "Islam" Means Peace: Understanding the Muslim Principle of Nonviolence Today, ABC-CLIO, 2011 p. 191.
  27. ^ Lockman; Beinin (1989), p. [1]
  28. ^ Ackerman; DuVall (2000), p 407.
  29. ^ Ackerman; DuVall (2000), p 401.
  30. ^ Robinson, Glenn E. "The Palestinians." The Contemporary Middle East, Third Edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2013. 126–127.
  31. ^ Ben-Ami 2006, p. 189.
  32. ^ Helena Cobban, 'The PLO and the Intifada', in Robert Owen Freedman, (ed.) The Intifada: Its Impact on Israel, the Arab World, and the Superpowers, University Press of Florida, 1991 pp. 70–106, pp. 94–95.'must be considered as an essential part of the backdrop against which the intifada germinated'.(p. 95)
  33. ^ Helena Cobban, 'The PLO and the Intifada', p. 94. In the immediate aftermath of the 6 Day War in 1967, some 15,000 Gazans had been deported to Egypt. A further 1,150 were deported between September 1967 and May 1978. This pattern was drastically curtailed by the Likud governments under Menachem Begin between 1978 and 1984.
  34. ^ a b Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1881–2001. Vintage. p. 567. ISBN 978-0-679-74475-7.
  35. ^ Lockman; Beinin (1989), p. 32.
  36. ^ Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001. Vintage. pp. 341, 568. ISBN 978-0-679-74475-7.
  37. ^ a b Neff, Donald. "The Intifada Erupts, Forcing Israel to Recognize Palestinians". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. December. 1997: 81–83. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  38. ^ M. B. Qumsiyeh Popular Resistance in Palestine; A History of Hope and Empowerment, Pluto Press; New York 2011.pp. 135
  39. ^ Shay (2005), p. 74.
  40. ^ Oren, Amir (18 October 2006). "Secrets of the Ya-Ya brotherhood". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  41. ^ Anita Vitullo, 'Uprising in Gaza,' in Lockman and Beinin 1989 pp. 43–55 pp. 43–44.
  42. ^ Vitullo, p. 44 The first incident involved two unarmed men, one a well-known Gaza businessman, at a roadblock. The second occurred in a residential raid, where subsequently a small cache of weapons were found in the cars of four men. The army them bulldozed their homes. A general strike took place, and in response Israel arrested and ordered the deportation of Shaykh 'Abd al-'Aziz Awad, who was held responsible for the growth of popular support for Islamic Jihad, on 15 November.
  43. ^ Vitullo, pp45-6. The settlers did not report the killing. An Israeli schoolteacher was arrested for the incident after a ballistics test was undertaken, but an Israel judge released him after a week, in the wake of Israeli settler protests. Settlers said she had been throwing stones.
  44. ^ Shalev (1991), p. 33.
  45. ^ Nassar; Heacock (1990), p. 31.
  46. ^ "Israel: Collective Punishment against Palestinians | Human Rights Watch". 2 February 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2024.
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  52. ^ Vitullo, p. 46:'Although Palestinians rushed to aid the man, no one cooperated with military interrogators, who arrested scores of people and clamped a curfew on the area.'
  53. ^ Israeli Troops Kill Arab in Gaza. The New York Times, 10 December 1987. The shootings today took place about 9 A.M., when teen-agers at the Jabalya refugee district surrounded an army patrol car and showered it with rocks and gasoline bombs. At least two of the firebombs landed on the car but did not explode, the army said. The officer in charge of the patrol opened fire, the army said. "As a result, a 17-year-old resident was killed," the army spokesman said. "One must presume he was among those who were throwing the Molotov cocktails."
  54. ^ https://remix.aljazeera.com/aje/PalestineRemix/mobile/remix/create/#!/23
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  56. ^ Tessler, A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, pp. 677-8.
  57. ^ Vitullo, p. 46. writes 20-year-old man. The Israeli military and other sources say he was 17 years old.
  58. ^ a b 'Intifada,' in David Seddon,(ed.) A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East, p. 284.
  59. ^ Vitullo p. 47 challenges this:'To the contrary, the protests showed restraint and rationality. . .Demonstrations were not "peaceful" but neither did they turn Palestinians into mindless mobs. Youths stripped one Israeli down to his underwear in front of Shifa hospital, but then let him run back to his fellow soldiers. A young Palestinian took another soldier's rifle away from him, broke it in two, then handed it back'.
  60. ^ Vitullo, p. 47
  61. ^ Shlaim (2000), pp. 450–1.
  62. ^ Audrey Kurth Cronin, 'How fighting ends: asymmetric wars, terrorism and suicide bombing,' inHolger Afflerbach, Hew Strachan (eds.) How Fighting Ends: A History of Surrender, Oxford University Press, 2012 pp. 417-433, p. 426
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  64. ^ Pearlman, p. 115.
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  66. ^ Rami Nasrallah, 'The First and Second Palestinian Intifadas,' in Joel Peters, David Newman (eds.) The Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Routledge 2013 pp. 56–68 p. 61
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