Jump to content

Jinn

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Jinniyah)
This article is about the concept of jinn in Islamic and Middle Eastern lore. For demons in Islam; otherwise known as the "offspring of Iblis", see Shaitan.
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Jinni (disambiguation), Jinn (disambiguation), Djinn (disambiguation), and Genie (disambiguation).

Jinn
Jinn gather to do battle with the hero Faramarz. Illustration in an illuminated manuscript of the Iranian epic Shahnameh
GroupingMythical creature
FolkloreReligion in pre-Islamic Arabia, Islamic folklore
RegionMuslim world

Jinn (Arabic: جِنّ‎), also romanized as djinn or anglicized as genies, are invisible creatures in early pre-Islamic Arabia and later in Islamic culture and beliefs.[1] Like humans, they are accountable for their deeds and can be either believers (Muslims) or disbelievers (kafir), depending on whether they accept God's guidance.

Since jinn are neither innately evil nor innately good, Islam acknowledged spirits from other religions and could adapt them during its expansion. Jinn are not a strictly Islamic concept; they may represent several pagan beliefs integrated into Islam.[2][a] Islam places jinn and humans on the same plane in relation to God, both being subject to God's judgement and an afterlife.[4] The Quran condemns the pre-Islamic Arabian practice of worshipping or seeking protection from them.[5]

Although usually invisible, jinn are supposed to be composed of thin and subtle bodies (Arabic: أَجْسَام, romanized: ajsām), and can change at will. They favor a snake form, but can also choose to appear as scorpions, lizards, or humans. They may even engage in sexual affairs with humans and produce offspring. If they are injured by someone, they usually seek revenge or possess the assailant's body, requiring exorcism. Jinn rarely meddle in human affairs, preferring to live with their own kind in tribes similar to those of pre-Islamic Arabia.

Individual jinn appear on charms and talismans. They are called upon for protection or magical aid, often under the leadership of a king. Many people who believe in jinn wear amulets to protect themselves against the assaults of the jinn, sent out by sorcerers and witches. A commonly held belief is that jinn cannot hurt someone who wears something with the name of God written on it. While some Muslim scholars in the past had ambivalent attitudes towards jinn, contemporary Muslim scholarship increasingly associate jinn with idolatry.

Etymology and translation

[edit]
The winged genie in the bucket and cone motif, depicting a demi-divine entity,[6] probably a forerunner of the pre-Islamic tutelary deities, who became the jinn in Islam. Relief from the north wall of the Palace of king Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin, 713–716 BCE.

Jinn is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root JNN (Arabic: جَنّ / جُنّ, jann), whose primary meaning is 'to hide' or 'to adapt'. Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, 'beings that are concealed from the senses'.[7] Cognates include the Arabic majnūn (مَجْنُون, 'possessed' or, generally, 'insane'), jannah (جَنَّة, 'garden', 'eden' or 'heaven'), and janīn (جَنِين, 'embryo').[8] Jinn is properly treated as a plural (however in Classical Arabic, may also appear as jānn, جَانّ), with the singular being jinnī (جِنِّيّ),[b] which the English word "genie" is derived from.

The origin of the word jinn remains uncertain.[3](p22) Some scholars relate the Arabic term jinn to the Latin genius – a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion – as a result of syncretism during the reign of the Roman empire under Tiberius and Augustus;[9] however, this derivation is also disputed.[3](p25) Supporters argue that both Roman genii as well as Arabian jinn are considered to be lesser deities inhabiting local sanctuaries, trees or springs, and persons or families.[10] Aramaic ginnaya (Classical Syriac: ܓܢܝܐ) with the meaning of 'tutelary deity'[3](p24) or 'guardian' are attributed to similar functions and are another possible origin of the term jinn.

Another suggestion holds that the word is of Persian origin and appeared in the form of the Avestic Jaini, a wicked (female) spirit. Jaini were among various creatures in the possibly even pre-Zoroastrian mythology of peoples of Iran.[11][12] Wensick advocates a purely Arabic origin of the term, asserting that according to the common Semitic view psychic and bodily affections are caused by spirits. An object reacting upon such an affect would be an incarnation of said spirit. Since these spirits are covered from the sight of humans, they would have been called jinn.[13](p45)

The anglicized form genie is a borrowing of the French génie, also from the Latin genius.[14] It first appeared in 18th century translations of the Thousand and One Nights from the 1706 French edition,[15] where it had been used owing to its rough similarity in sound and sense and further applies to benevolent intermediary spirits, in contrast to the malevolent spirits called 'demon' and mostly-benevolent 'heavenly angels', in literature.[16] In Assyrian art, the modern term used for creatures ontologically between humans and divinities is also genie.[17]

Though not a precise fit, descriptive analogies that have been used for these beings in Western thought include demon, spirit, "sprite", and fairy, depending on source.[18][3](p22) In turn, the Arabic translation for the Greek nymph ('arūsa) is also used for jinn by Middle Eastern sources.[13](p43) Although the term spirit is frequently used, it has been criticised for not capturing the corporeal nature of the jinn, and that the term genie should be used instead.[19]

Pre-Islamic era

[edit]
A Sinai desert cobra. Snakes are the animals most frequently associated with jinn. Black snakes are commonly believed to be evil jinn, whereas white snakes are held to be benign (Muslim) jinn.[20]

The exact origins of belief in jinn are not entirely clear.[21](pp 1–10) Belief in jinn in pre-Islamic Arab religion is testified not only by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic Arabic poetry.[22](p54) Some scholars of the Middle East hold that they originated as malevolent spirits residing in deserts and unclean places, who often took the forms of animals;[21](p 1–10) others hold that they were originally pagan nature deities who gradually became marginalized as other deities took greater importance.[21](pp 1–10)

Fear and veneration

[edit]

Jinn were already worshipped by many Arabs during in pre-Islamic Arabia.[23][22](p54) Julius Wellhausen observed that jinn were often thought to "inhabit or haunt desolate, dark and dingy places in the desert".[24] For that reason, they were held responsible for various diseases and mental illnesses.[25][21](pp 1–10) Emilie Savage-Smith asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.[13](p39) In the regions north to the Hejaz, Palmyra and Baalbek, the terms jinni and ilah (deity) were often used interchangeably.[26] Julius Wellhausen likewise agrees that in pre-Islamic Arabia it was assumed there are at least some friendly and helpful beings among the jinn. He distinguishes between a god and a jinni, not on the basis of morality, but on the basis of worship; the jinn are worshipped in private while the gods are worshipped in public.[13](p39)

Al-Jahiz credits the pre-Islamic Arabs with believing that the society of jinn constitutes several tribes and groups, analogous to pre-Islamic Arabian culture. Jinn could also protect, marry, kidnap, possess, and kill people.[27][28](p 424) Despite being invisible, jinn are considered to have bodies (ajsām), as described by Zakariya al-Qazwini, they are among animals, along with humans, burdened beasts (like horses), cattle, wild beasts, birds, and reptiles.[29](p135) Jinn are further known as shapeshifters, often assuming the form of an animal, favoring the form of a snake. Other chthonic animals regarded as forms of jinn include scorpions and lizards. Both scorpions and serpents have been venerated in the ancient Near East.

When they shift into a human form however, they are said to stay partly animal and are not fully human.[3](p164)[30] Although the power of jinn usually exceed those of humans, it is conceivable a man could kill a jinni in single combat, but they are feared for attacking without being seen.[31] Some sources even speak of killed jinn leaving behind a carcass similar to either a serpent or a scorpion.[32]

Poetry and soothsaying

[edit]

Despite that they were often feared or inspired awe, the jinn were also pictured to befriend humans or have romantic feelings for them. According to common Arabian belief, pre-Islamic soothsayers, philosophers, and poets were inspired by the jinn.[23][21](pp 1–10)

The Arabian poet al-A'sha (d. after 3/625) is said to have gotten his inspiration for his poetry by a friend named Misḥal ("daʿawtu khalīlī Misḥalan") and further calls him his jinni-brother ("akhī ʾl-jinnī").[33] Similarly, the poet Thābit (d. 54/674) who later converted to Islam and became known as "the poet of the prophet", referred to his jinni-friend as his "sharp-sighted brother from the jinn" ("wa-akhī min al-jinn al-baṣīr").[33] The relationship between jinn and humans can also be romantic in nature. According to one famous Arabian story, the jinni Manzur fell in love with a human woman called Habbah. He is supposed to have taught her the arts of healing.[34]

The mutual relationship between jinn and humans is different than that of a jinni and a soothsayer (kāhin). The soothsayer is presented as someone who is totally controlled by the jinni entering. The soothsayer was consulted to reveal hidden information or settle disputes, as it was believed, the jinn speaking through them revealed hidden knowledge.[35]

Islam

[edit]

Jinn have been called an integral part of the Muslim tradition[36] or faith,[37] completely accepted in official Islam;[38] prominently featured in folklore.[39] Medieval and modern scholars have studied the consequences implied by their existence,[40] legal status, the possible relations between them and mankind, especially in questions of marriage and property.[38]

Quran

[edit]
See also: Islamic mythology
The 72nd chapter of the Qur'an entitled Al-Jinn (The Jinn), as well as the heading and introductory bismillah of the next chapter entitled al-Muzzammil (The Enshrouded One)

Jinn are mentioned approximately 29 times in the Quran,[21](p21) exclusively in Meccan surahs.[41] The Quran assumes that the audience is familiar with the subject without elaborating on the jinn much further.[42] According to the Quran 51:56-57, Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and prophets and messengers were sent to both communities.[43][44][45]

Throughout the Quran, humans and jinn (al-ins wa-l-jinn) appear frequently as a pair, designating their equal status in regards of their creation and rejecting that jinn share divinity with the Creator.[46](p181)[6] The term ins derives from anisa, which means "to be familiar with", and refers to recognisable familiar human beings. In contrast, the term jinn refers to foreign, invisible, or unknown anthropomorphic beings, which are nonetheless subject to the same considerations as the former.[10](p101) They were both created to worship God (51:56).[47][46](p182) Because they are supposed to worship God from free will, they are both able for good and evil deeds (7:179, 55:56).[47][46](p182) They are, like humans, rational beings formed of nations (7:38).[47][46](p182)

Surah al-jinn is about the revelation to jinn.[48] The same Surah mentions righteous jinn on one hand, and malicious jinn on the other.[46](p181) The jinn can neither harm nor benefit humans, for they are occupied with looking after themselves and their own place in the cosmos.[46](p185) This is in notable contrast to demons and devils in the Judeo-Christian tradition.[46](p181, 185) The Quran does not condemn the jinn as a source of harm, but by mistaking them for beings deserving cultic veneration (72:6).[47][13](p41)[46](p185) Jinn and humans are blamed for ascribing divine attributes to another creature (i.e. jinn); jinn to themselves and humans to the jinn.[13](p41)[10](p102)

In the Quranic account, despite their similarities, there are important differences between the two species. Whereas humans are made from "clay" or "dirt", jinn were created from "smokeless fire" (Quran 15:27, Quran 55:15),[46](p182) which is possibly the reason why they are credited with some extraordinary abilities, such as invisibility, transformation, and ascending into the air like devils (Quran 72:8).[46](p182) Despite some superhuman powers, the jinn occupy no fundamentally different position in the Quran than humans. Like humans, the jinn have no knowledge of the future.[46](p182) Like humanity, jinn face epistemic limitations regarding "the hidden/occult", have to rely on God's messengers, and face eschatological judgement.[46](p182)[49][47]

Exegesis

[edit]
Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century mina’i-fritware bowl. The scene in this bowl can be understood as depicting the enthroned (Second) Sulaymān with messengers to either side, crowned human headed winged jinn.[50]
The Singer Ibrahim and the jinn. Ibrahim has been imprisoned by his master Muhammad al-Amin and visited by a jinn in guise of an old man. The jinn offers him food and drink and is so impressed by Ibrahim's voice that he convinces Muhammad to free him.[51]

In Quranic interpretation, the term jinn can be used in two different ways:[52](p12)[10]

  1. a specific invisible being, offspring of abu Jann considered to be, along with humans, thaqalān (accountable for their deeds), created out of "fire and air" (Arabic: مَارِجٍ مِن نَّار, mārijin min nār).[53][54]
  2. any object that cannot be detected by human sensory organs, including angels, devils, and the (spiritual) interior of human beings.[53][55][c]

Belief in jinn is not included among the six articles of Islamic faith, as belief in angels is. Nonetheless, many Muslim scholars, including the Hanbalī scholar ibn Taymiyya and the Ẓāhirī scholar ibn Hazm, believe they are essential to the Islamic faith since they are mentioned in the Quran.[3](p33) It is generally accepted by the majority of Muslim scholars that jinn can possess individuals. This is considered to be part of the doctrines (aqidah) of the "people of the Sunnah" (ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a) in the tradition of Ash'ari.[58](p 68) The Atharī scholars ibn Taimiyya and ibn Qayyim agree on this matter.[58] From among the Sunni schools of theology, only the Māturīdīs seems to debate possession. Al-Rustughfanī deemed jinn-possession impossible.[59]

Al-Māturīdī focuses on the dynamics between jinn and humans based on Quran 72:6. He states that seeking refuge among the jinn increases fear and anxiety, however, not because of the jinn, but due to the psychological dependence of the individual towards external powers. By that, he refers to seeking refuge among the jinn as a form of širk, due to the reliance on a created thing instead of God.[52](p23)

Although jinn frequently appear in hagiographic Sufi literature and their existence is never doubted, they do not play any major role in Sufi cosmology. Because of their similarities to humans, they function neither as a model to follow (like angels) nor tempters of the lower self (like Satan) and mostly feature in poetic anecdotes.[60]

Jurisprudence

[edit]

The jinn are obligated to follow the divine law (sharīʿa), as derived from the Quran by Muslim jurists (faqīh). Thus, the jinn are considered, along with humans, to be mukallāf. Believers among the jinn are called "Muslim jinn" (muslimū l-jinn).[61]

Since both creations must perform the required prayers (salah), Muslim jurists debated if one is allowed to perform the prayer behind a jinni. Shibli cites two Hanbalite scholars who regard this as permissible without hesitation. Since Muhammad was sent to jinn and humans, both are mukallāf and subject to the command to pray.[d]

Because humans and jinn are capable of procreation, Muslim jurists dealt with the issue of permissibility of intercourse between these two types of creatures. Some Ḥadīths, though considered fabricated (mawḍūʻ) by some muhaddith (hadith scholars), pushed the necessity for an explanation:[62]

"The Hour will come when the children of jinn will become many among you."

— Suyuti, Laqt al-marjân, 38.[62]

"Among you are those who are expatriated (mugharrabûn);" and this, he explained, meant "crossed with jinn."

— Suyuti, Laqt al-marjân, 28.[62]

Although there are recorded cases of purported human-jinn relationships[e] most Muslim jurists agree that such a relationship is not permissible.[63] Even those scholars who allowed such relationships, still considered them undesirable (makruh).[62] Offspring of human-jinn relationships are nonetheless, usually considered to be gifted and talented people with special abilities.[28]

Folklore

[edit]
Examples of the Jinn of the Air depicted on Seljuk 13th century tilework from Kubad Abad.

The jinn (also known as: Albanian: Xhindi, Bosnian: Džin, Turkish: Cin) were adopted by later Islamic culture, since the Quran affirms their existence.[64] Although depictions are categorized into little tradition (folklore) and greater tradition (official Islam) for research purposes, both depictions are largely the same.[f]

The Quran does not consider foreign mythological beings to be devils, but entities erroneously ascribed divine power to. Therefore, jinn were considered a third class of invisible beings, often neutral or morally ambiguous, not consequently equated with devils.[65] Islam allowed to integrate local beliefs about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India, into a monotheistic framework without demonizing them.[66] An example of this can be seen in the writings of Syed Sultan who treated Shiva and Parvati as "created beings" and casts the Suras and Asuras into the roles of the jinn in Islamic haggadic tradition.[67] Besides local deities, the existence of purely malevolent spirits is also acknowledged. Thus, jinn exist alongside other mythological entities, such as demons (Dēw) and fairies (parī).[68]

The moral attitude of the jinn is usually associated with their religion. Good jinn are usually considered Muslim jinn or jinn Islam, whereas unbelieving jinn were tempted by the devils (shayatin) and are called kāfir jinn or jinn kāfir.[69] Besides Islam, they could also practise Christianity and Judaism.[70] Good jinn might teach people moral lessons and might be benevolent,[71] or aid spiritual persons, such as shamans (kam) in Central Asia, or spiritual healers in Senegal.[72][73] Mediha Esenel's studies in 1940 Anatolia mentions the belief that spiritually gifted people can act as intermediaries between humans and jinn.[74]

Most of the time, jinn are believed not to interfere with humans and live mostly in desolate or abandoned places.[75][76] This is, for example, evident from the Turkish phrase İn Cin top oynuyor.[77] It is only when they are angered or disturbed, for example, if their children are trodden upon or hot water is thrown on them,[78] that they take revenge on humans. For this reason, Muslims utter "destur" (permission), before doing something which might accidentally hurt jinn, such as sprinkling hot water on public grounds or into bushes, so present jinn are advised to leave the place.[75][79][21](p149)

Angered or straightforwardly evil mannered jinn, could hurt people by inflicting physical damage, causing illness, or taking control over a human's body.[70] A human can be controlled by jinn under certain circumstances. The individual needs to be in a state of dha'iyfah (Arabic: ضَعِيفَة, "(mental) weakness"). Feelings of insecurity, mental instability, unhappy love and depression (being "tired from the soul") are forms of dha'iyfah.[80] In that case, it is believed that an exorcism is required to save the person from the assaulting jinni.[81] To protect oneself from jinn, many Muslims wear amulets with the name of God graved on. Jinn are also said to be scared of iron[21](pp 128, 250) and wolves.[82](p 34)[21](p 95)

Modern and post-modern era

[edit]

Post-modern literature and movies

[edit]
Main article: Genies in popular culture
The cave chamber Majlis al Jinn, believed to be a gathering place of the jinn in Omani lore

Jinn feature in the magical realism genre, introduced into Turkish literature by Latife Tekin (1983),[83] who uses magical elements known from pre-Islamic and Islamic Anatolian lore. Since the 1980s, this genre has become prominent in Turkish literature. The story by Tekin deals with folkloric and religious belief in a rationalized society.[84]

Contrary to the neutral to positive depiction of jinn in Tekin's novels, since 2004 jinn have become a common trope in Middle Eastern horror movies.[85] The presentation of jinn usually combines Quranic with oral and cultural beliefs about jinn.[86] Out of 89 films, 59 have direct references to jinn as the antagonist, 12 use other sorts of demons, while other types of horror, such as the impending apocalypse, hauntings, or ghosts, constitute only 14 films.[86] The popularity of jinn as a choice of monster can best be explained by their affirmation in the Quran.[87] They are still a popular trope today. A study from 2020 shows that jinn are still the favorite Horror element among teenagers.[88] Jinn further feature in Iranian horror movies.[89]

Prevalence of belief

[edit]
West Gate Of Firoz Shah's Cotillah. Firoz Shah Kotla is believed to inhabit saints from among the jinn. In the Indian Musim consciousness, due to their long-livity, the jinn connect centuries of apart of Muslim experience. Since 1977 the place has become popular for jinn-saint-veneration.[90]

Though discouraged by some teachings of modern Islam, cultural beliefs about jinn remain popular among Muslim societies and their understanding of cosmology and anthropology.[91] Affirmation on the existence of jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world (including Egypt),[92] and West Africa,[93][94] mental illnesses are still often attributed to jinn possession.[94]

Since modern times, jinn were often portrayed in a more negative light. After the failure of the rebellion against the East India Company, the Muslim elite regarded jinn-veneration in India as a superstitional belief and hinders the common people to instigate military power.[95] Similarly, the Deobandi movement, although not denying the reality of jinn, mostly depicts jinn as malevolent beings who need to be avoided or exorcised.[96][97] In modern Iran, (evil) jinn are often substituted by devils.[98] Similarly, in many modern tales, the term jinn is used for div (demon), causing a shift in meaning.[99] Nonetheless, traditional belief in jinn remains popular in Islamic culture.[100] The negative evaluations of jinn are not static, but rather entangled with traditional and also positive depictions of jinn.[101]

According to a survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center in 2012:[102]

Country % of Muslims who affirm a belief in the existence of jinn
 Morocco
86%
 Bangladesh
84%
 Pakistan
77%
 Afghanistan
70%
 Turkey
63%
 Iraq
55%
 Indonesia
53%
 Thailand
47%
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
36%
Central Asia
15%

The amount of Muslims believing in jinn from Bosnia and Herzegovina is higher than the general European average (30%), although only 21% believe in sorcery and 13% would wear talisman for protection against jinn; 12% support offerings and appeal given to the jinn.[103]

Sleep paralysis is understood as a "jinn attack" by many sleep paralysis sufferers in Egypt, as discovered by a Cambridge neuroscience study Jalal, Simons-Rudolph, Jalal, & Hinton (2013).[104] The study found that as many as 48% of those who experience sleep paralysis in Egypt believe it to be an assault by the jinn.[104] Almost all of these sleep paralysis sufferers (95%) would recite verses from the Quran during sleep paralysis to prevent future "jinn attacks". In addition, some (9%) would increase their daily Islamic prayer (ṣalāh) to get rid of these assaults by jinn.[104] Sleep paralysis is generally associated with great fear in Egypt, especially if believed to be supernatural in origin.[105]

Similarly, European patients with a Muslim background often attribute mental illnesses to jinn.[106] Most common attributations to jinn are symptoms of hallucination and psychotic symptoms, but can also include mood disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Capgras syndrome, and epilepsy.[106] It has been noted that not all Muslims who believe in jinn, believe they can possess people. Furthermore, belief in possession is not limited to Muslims.[107] Contrary to the assumption that higher education is proportional to disenchantment, belief in jinn-possession may remain intact even after medical graduation.[108]

Visual art

[edit]
Ornamentation of intertwined serpents above the door of the Citadel of Aleppo

Although there are very few visual representations of jinn in Islamic art, when they do appear, it is usually related to a specific event or individual jinn.

Visual representations of jinn appear in manuscripts and their existence is often implied in works of architecture by the presence of apotropaic devices like serpents, which were intended to ward off evil spirits. Lastly, King Solomon is illustrated very often with jinn as the commander of an army that included them.

Architectural representation

[edit]
Takht-i Marmar, the marble throne supported by jinn and divs (demons), Gulistan Palace, Teheran, created for Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1833)

In addition to these representations of jinn in vicinity to kingship, there were also architectural references to jinn throughout the Islamic world. In the Citadel of Aleppo, the entrance gate Bab al-Hayyat made reference to jinn in the stone relief carvings of serpents; likewise, the water gate at Ayyubid Harran housed two copper sculptures of jinn, serving as talismans to ward off both snakes and evil jinn in the form of snakes.[109](p408)

Alongside these depictions of the jinn found at the Aleppo Citadel, depictions of the jinn can be found in the Rūm Seljuk palace. There are a phenomenal range of creatures that can be found on the eight-pointed tiles of the Seal of Sulaymān device.[109](p390) Among these were the jinn, that belonged among Solomon's army and as Solomon claimed to have control over the jinn, so did the Rūm Seljuk sultan that claimed to be the Sulaymān of his time.[109](p393) In fact, one of the most common representations of jinn are alongside or in association with King Solomon. It was thought that King Solomon had very close ties to the jinn, and even had control over many of them.[109](p399) The idea that a great and just ruler commands jinn was also extended to other emperors, such as Alexander the Great.[109](p399)

Given this association, jinn were often seen with Solomon in a princely or kingly context, such as the small, animal-like jinn sitting beside King Solomon on his throne illustrated in an illuminated manuscript of Aja'ib al-Makhluqat by Zakariya al-Qazwini, written in the 13th century.[110]

In the Kitāb al-Bulhān

[edit]
Al-Ahmar, the red king of the jinn. One of the Seven jinn-kings in the late 14th-century Book of Wonders.

In the Book of Wonders compiled in the 14th century by Abd al-Hasan al-Isfahani, there are illustrations of various supernatural beings (demons, ʿafārīt,[111] jinn, the evil eye, devils, lilith, celestial spirits, etc.).[112][113](p27)

Each celestial spirits is referred to as a "King of the Jinn", represented alongside his spiritual helpers and alongside the corresponding talismanic symbols.[113](p27) For instance, the 'Red King of Tuesday' was depicted in the Book of Wonders as a sinister form astride a lion. In the same illustration, he holds a severed head and a sword, because the 'Red King of Tuesday' was aligned with Mars, the god of war.[113](p27) Alongside that, there were illustrations of the 'Gold King' and the 'White King'.[113](p27)

Aside from the seven 'Kings of the Jinn', the Book of Wonders included an illustration of Huma (Arabic: حمى), or the 'Fever'. Huma was depicted as three-headed and as embracing the room around him, in order to capture someone and bring on a fever in them.[113](p28)

Talismanic representation

[edit]
Image of a talisman (Tawiz), supposed to ward off jinn, evil eye, sorcery, and demons.

The jinn had an indirect impact on Islamic art through the creation of talismans that were alleged to guard the bearer from the jinn and were enclosed in leather and included Qur'anic verses.[114] It was not unusual for those talismans to be inscribed with separated Arabic letters, because the separation of those letters was thought to positively affect the potency of the talisman overall.[115] An object that was inscribed with the word of Allah was thought to have the power to ward off evil from the person who obtained the object, though many of these objects also had astrological signs, depictions of prophets, or religious narratives.[116]

Magical practises

[edit]

Zawba'a or Zoba'ah, the jinn-king of Friday. One of the Seven jinn-kings in the late 14th-century Book of Wonders.

Jinn might be invoked, along with demons and devils, for means of sorcery, incantation, protection, or divination.[117][118] Soothsayers (kāhin) are credited with the ability to ask jinn about things of the past, since their lives are believed to last longer than that of humans.[119](p73)

Common beliefs regarding sorcery and commanding jinn are attested in ibn al-Nadim's Kitāb al-Fihrist.[120](p141) Since he locates such practises not as a branch of science or philosophy, but rather in a chapter about stories and fables, the author might not have believed in the efficiency of sorcery himself.[120](p141) He reports that the art of commanding jinn and demons is traced back to Solomon and Jamshid. The first who would have practised a lawful method of incantation is supposed to be Abū Naṣr Aḥmad b. Hilāl during the Umayyad period.[120](p142) Ibn Nadim explains lawful and unlawful subjugating of jinn and demons as distinct: While the former controls the jinn by the power of God's divine names, the latter pleases demons and devils by prohibited offerings and sinful acts.[120](p141–142) According to al-Jāḥiẓ, ibn Hilāl is said to have the power to summon demons and jinn[120](p142) and further claimed to have married a daughter of Satan and begotten a child.[120](p143)

There is evidence that subjugation of spirits, jinn, and demons, was also cultivated by various Islamic authorities. Al-Ṭabasī, who was considered a reliable muḥadīth (scholar of ḥadīth) and pious ascetic, wrote an extensive treatise (al-Shāmil fī al-baḥr al-kāmil) on subjugating demons and jinn.[120](p145) According to Zakariya al-Qazwini, it was well known that jinn obeyed al-Ṭabasī. He gives an example, that al-Ṭabasī demonstrated the jinn to the famous scholar Ghazālī, who saw them as shadows on the wall.[120](p145) He professes that jinn only obey when the individual turns away from the temptations of creation and devoting oneself towards God.[120](p146) The al-Shāmil gives detailed instructions for preparations of various incantations. Unlike, for example in the writings of al-Razi, the al-Shāmil has no direct link to Hellenistic or Hermetic magic or philosophy.[120](p148) Magic was also used in the Ottoman Empire as evident from the Talismanic shirts of Murad III.[121]

Related to the occult traditions in Islamic culture is the belief in the "Seven kings of the Week", also known as rūḥāiya ulia (higher spirits; angels) and rūḥāiya sufula (lower spirits; demons). These beings are, for example, invoked for the preparation of Magic squares.[122][21](p87) This belief is attested by the Book of Wonders.[113] It contains artistic depictions of several supernatural beings (demons, jinn, the evil eye, fever (Huma, Arabic: حمى), devils, lilith, etc.).[112][113] Some of these beings indicate that the work connects Hebrew, Christian, and Islamic magical traditions.[113] The original work is attributed to al-Bakhi, who founded a system of astrological magic based on Neo-Platonic thought.[113] Although many pages are damaged, it is possible to reconstruct their meanings from Ottoman copies.[113] Each king is depicted with helpers and associated talismanic symbols.[113]

Comparative mythology

[edit]
Further information: Comparative mythology § Jinn
The sheyd אַשְמְדּאָי (Ašmodai) in bird-like form, with typical rooster feet, as depicted in Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae, 1775

In comparative mythology and historical context studies, Quranic studies scholars discuss the relationship between Islamic notions of jinn and earlier Jewish and Christian ideas of supernatural beings or preternatural creatures, especially those of angels, spirits, and demons. It is widely agreed that the belief in jinn was a common element of the culture out of which the Quran came.[64] One question has concerned the degree to Quranic jinn might be compared to fallen angels in Christian traditions, although issues with this view are that jinn are not identified as "angels" and that descriptions of angels do not involve their flying up the sky to eavesdrop on heavenly secrets (unlike jinn who do so in Surah 72).[123] Patricia Crone notes that, like jinn, the demons of the Testament of Solomon ascend to the firmament and eavesdrop on heavenly secrets; as did demons of Zoroastrian cosmology, who in addition encounter a heavenly defense systems (as did Islamic jinn).[123] Similar statements are also found in the Talmud (Berakhot 18b) and the 8th-century Scolion of Theodore bar Konai.[124]

Counterparts to Quranic jinn have been identified in the Book of Jubilees, where spirits created by God, associated with fire, having an identified leader (Mastema), may either aid or harm humans, and suffer a similar fate as the jinn.[125] The Shedim of the Tanakh are said to resemble jinn.[126][21](p120) Like jinn, among a class of beings of Jewish mythology/belief (jnun, shedim, etc.), there is a tradition of ritual exorcism and negotiations that differs from that of traditional Jewish cure of spirit possession associated with ghosts (Dybbuk).[127]

Jinn have also been compared to preternatural beings called gny' in inscriptions from Palmyra[128] as well as broader late antique demonologies.[129]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ From T. Nünlist (2015) Dämonenglaube im Islam[3](p2)
    TRANSLATION: (in English)
    "M. Dols points out that jinn-belief is not a strictly Islamic concept. It rather includes countless elements of idol-worship, as Muhammad's enemies practised in Mecca during jahilliya. According to F. Meier early Islam integrated many pagan deities into its system by degrading them to spirits. 1. In Islam, the existence of spirits that are neither angels nor necessarily devils is acknowledged. 2. Thereby Islam is able to incorporate non-biblical[,] non-Quranic ideas about mythic images, that means: a. degrading deities to spirits and therefore taking into the spiritual world. b. taking daemons, not mentioned in the sacred traditions of Islam, of uncertain origin. c. consideration of spirits to tolerate or advising to regulate them."[3](p2)
    ORIGINAL: (in German)
    "M. Dols macht darauf aufmerksam, dass der Ginn-Glaube kein strikt islamisches Konzept ist. Er beinhaltet vielmehr zahllose Elemente einer Götzenverehrung, wie sie Muhammads Gegner zur Zeit der gahiliyya in Mekka praktizierten. Gemäß F. Meier integrierte der junge Islam bei seiner raschen Expansion viele heidnische Gottheiten in sein System, indem er sie zu Dämonen degradierte. 1. Im Islam wird die Existenz von Geistern, die weder Engel noch unbedingt Teufel sein müssen, anerkannt. 2. Damit besitzt der Islam die Möglichkeit, nicht-biblische[,] nicht koranische Vorstellungen von mythischen Vorstellungen sich einzuverleiben, d.h.: a. Götter zu Geistern zu erniedrigen und so ins islamische Geisterreich aufzunehmen. b. in der heiligen Überlieferung des Islams nicht eigens genannte Dämonen beliebiger Herkunft zu übernehmen. c. eine Berücksichtigung der Geister zu dulden oder gar zu empfehlen und sie zu regeln."[3](p2)[2]
  2. ^ sometimes Arabs use Jānn (Arabic: جان) term for singular, jānn also referred to jinn world – another plural, snakes / serpents and another type of jinn
  3. ^ This is, for example, evident from A'sha's saying in mention of Sulayman ibn Dawud; and He subjected from the jinn among the angels (min jinni al-mala'iki)"[56](p546) Al-Jahiz defines jinn as various spirits defined by their behaviour; a malicious and wicked jinn is called a s̲h̲ayṭān, a jinn lifting a heavy weight and listening at the doors of Heaven is a mārid, a jinn of great intelligence is called an ʿabḳarī, a jinn entirely good and pure is an angel.[57]
  4. ^ From T. Nünlist (2015) Dämonenglaube im Islam[3](p89)
    TRANSLATION: (in English)
    "Islamic jurists have also repeatedly addressed the question of whether the jinn have a religion. Shchibli notes that in this context they had a controversial discussion about whether it was permissible under Sharia law to perform the Muslim ritual prayer (salat) behind a genie. Two Hanbali sources led by Shibli affirm this permissibility without hesitation and justify their point of view by saying that not only the humans (ins) but also the jinn are "mukallaf".[3](p2)
    ORIGINAL: (in German)
    "Auch die islamischen Rechtsgelehrten haben sich wiederholt mit der Frage beschäftigt, ob die Dschinn eine Religion haben. Shchibli hält fest, dass sie in diesem Zusammenhang kontrovers diskutiert hätten, ob es schariarehtlich zulässig sei, das muslimische Ritualgebet (salat) hinter einem Dschinni zu verrichten. Zwei von Schibli angeführte hanbalitische Gewährsleute bejahen diese Zulässigkeit ohne Zögern und begründen ihren Standpunkt damit, dass nicht nur die Menschen (ins), sondern auch die Dschinn mukallaf seien."[3](p89)
  5. ^ In a study of exorcism culture in the Hadhramaut of Yemen, love was one of the most frequent cited causes of relationships between humans and jinn. Love seems to be the most frequent occasion of contact between men and jinn. A jinni meets a woman and falls in love with her, or vice versa... This possession is manifest notably when the jinni has sexual intercourse with the person he/she possesses. In that case, the individual behaves with gestures and words as if they were having sexual intercourse, although he/she is apparently alone in the room. Besides, this person seems to suddenly lose all interest for his/her environment."[62]
  6. ^ From T. Nünlist (2015) Dämonenglaube im Islam TRANSLATION: (in English)
    "The distinction made between popular and scriptural Islam or between little and great traditions proves to be problematic and only serves as a makeshift here. This comparison implicitly suggests that the representations of daemonology in written sources differ from the findings documented in ethnographic, anthropological and sociologically oriented field studies. Such a view must be rejected. The treatment of the belief in daemons in the written sources primarily consulted in the context of these studies does not differ fundamentally from the views observed in popular Islam. Popular Islam and scriptural Islam do not design separate daemonologies. This situation is explained not least by the fact that the Quran and Sunna, the two most important sources in the area of Islam for the great tradition, clearly affirm the existence of jinn."[3](p4)

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Hans Daiber. "Introduction, text, and commentary". Islamic Concept of Belief in the 4th/10th Century. Abu l-Lait as-Samarqandi's commentary on Abu Hanifa (died 150/767) al-Fiqh al-absat. By as-Samarqandi, Abu l-Lait. Studia Culturae Islamicae (in Arabic and English). Vol. 52. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. p. 243. OCLC 35600707.
  2. ^ a b McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (2005). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān. Vol. 3. Brill. p. 45. ISBN 978-90-04-12356-4.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Nünlist, Tobias (2015). Dämonenglaube im Islam [Demonic Belief in Islam] (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-110-33168-4.
  4. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 19–21.
  5. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 37.
  6. ^ a b Fee, C.R.; Webb, Jeffrey B. (29 August 2016). American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An encyclopedia of American folklore. ABC-CLIO. p. 527. ISBN 978-1-610-69568-8.
  7. ^ Lane, Edward William (1863). "An Arabic-English Lexicon". London, UK: Willams & Norgate. p. 462. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015 – via tyndalearchive.com.
  8. ^ Wehr, Hans (1994). Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (4 ed.). Urbana, IL: Spoken Language Services. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-87950-003-0.
  9. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 38.
  10. ^ a b c d Abu-Hamdiyyah, Muhammad (2020). The Qur'an: An introduction. Routledge.
  11. ^ Tisdall, W.S.C. (1905). The Original Sources of the Qur'an. London, UK: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
  12. ^ Tisdall, W.S.C. (1895). The Religion of the Crescent or Islam: Its strength, its weakness, its origin, its influence.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Magic and Divination in Early Islam. (2021). Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.
  14. ^ "genie, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2014.
  15. ^ Arabian Nights' Entertainments. Vol. I. 1706. p. 14.
  16. ^ Mckenzie, John L., ed. (1995). Dictionary of the Bible. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-684-81913-6.
  17. ^ Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (2010). Mythology of Kingship in Neo-Assyrian Art. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-521-51790-4.
  18. ^ "jinn – definition of jinn in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  19. ^ Haring, Lee (1995). Africa and the Disciplines: The contributions of research in Africa to the social sciences and humanities. pp. 122–124.
  20. ^ Amira el-Zein. The Evolution of the Concept of Jinn from Pre-Islam to Islam. p. 260.[full citation needed]
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lebling, Robert (2010). Legends of the Fire Spirits: Jinn and genies from Arabia to Zanzibar. New York, NY & London, UK: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-063-3.
  22. ^ a b Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. ISBN 978-0-745-63998-7.
  23. ^ a b El-Zein 2009, p. 34.
  24. ^ Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.
  25. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 122.
  26. ^ ʻAẓmah, ʻ. (2014). The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 293
  27. ^ "cin". TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi.
  28. ^ a b Aloiane, Z.A. (1996). "Anthropomorphic representation of evil in Islam and some other traditions – a cross-cultural approach". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 49 (3). Akadémiai Kiadó: 423–434. JSTOR 43391301.
  29. ^ Nasr, S. H. (2013). Islamic Life and Thought. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.
  30. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 164.
  31. ^ Abd-Allah, Umar F. (2002). "The Perceptible and the unseen: The Qur'anic conception of man's relationship to God and realities beyond human perception". In Palmer, Spencer J. (ed.). Mormons and Muslims: Spiritual foundations and modern manifestations. Religious Studies Center. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. pp. 209–264.
  32. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 91–93.
  33. ^ a b Yosefi, Maxim. “The Origins of the Traditional Approach towards the Jinn of Poetic Inspiration in Tribal Arab Culture.” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 49, 2019, pp. 293–302. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27014158. Accessed 30 Oct. 2023.
  34. ^ Amira el-Zein. The Evolution of the Concept of Jinn from Pre-Islam to Islam. pp. 108–109.[full citation needed]
  35. ^ Ruiz, Manuel. "The conception of authority in pre-Islamic Arabia: its legitimacy and origin." (1971). p. 20
  36. ^ Mark A. Caudill (2006). Twilight in the Kingdom: Understanding the Saudis. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 92. ISBN 9780313084850. Jinn are an integral part of both traditional and Gnostic Islamic belief.
  37. ^ William E. Burns (2022). They Believed That?: A Cultural Encyclopedia of Superstitions and the Supernatural around the World. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 137. ISBN 9781440878480. Jinn are considered by some authorities to be an integral part of the Islamic faith due to their inclusion in the Quran.
  38. ^ a b D.B. MacDonald; H. Massé; P.N. Boratav; K.A. Nizami; P. Voorhoeve (eds.). "Djinn". Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0191. Retrieved 27 July 2024. II. In official Islam the existence of the d̲j̲inn was completely accepted, as it is to This day, and the full consequences implied by their existence were worked out. Their legal status in all respects was discussed and fixed, and the possible relations between them and mankind, especially in questions of marriage and property, were examined.
  39. ^ Olomi, Ali A. (2021). "14. Jinn in the Quran". The Routledge Companion to the Qur'an. N.Y.: Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-134-63548-1. Retrieved 24 July 2024. The jinn feature prominently in Islamic folklore as ambivalent and mischievous supernatural forces.
  40. ^ Coeli Fitzpatrick; Adam Hani Walker, eds. (2014). Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 321. ISBN 9781610691789. Although they feature prominently in folklore, jinn are also taken quite seriously by Muslim scholars, both medieval and modern.
  41. ^ Sinai 2023, p. 180.
  42. ^ Rothenberg, Celia E. Spirits of Palestine: Gender, society, and stories of the jinn. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. p.245
  43. ^ Quran 51:56-56
  44. ^ Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb al-Ṭabarī, Tuḥfat al-gharā’ib, I, p. 68
  45. ^ Abū al-Futūḥ Rāzī, Tafsīr-e rawḥ al-jenān va rūḥ al-janān, pp. 193, 341
  46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Sinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.
  47. ^ a b c d e Meri, Josef (2016). Routledge Revivals: Medieval Islamic Civilization (2006) An Encyclopedia - Volume I. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-66822-4.
  48. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 64.
  49. ^ Teuma, Edmund. "The Solomon legend in Muslim tradition." (1987).
  50. ^ On the Exercise of Coastal Control through Observation and Long Distance Communication Systems in Seljuk Territory in the XIIIth Century
  51. ^ Komaroff, Linda, and Stefano Carboni, eds. The legacy of Genghis Khan: courtly art and culture in Western Asia, 1256-1353. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002.
  52. ^ a b DÜZGÜN, Şaban Ali. "DİNSEL ve MİTOLOJİK YÖNLERİYLE CİN ve ŞEYTAN ALGIMIZ."
  53. ^ a b Teuma, E. (1984). More on Qur'anic jinn. Melita Theologica, 35(1-2), 37-45.
  54. ^ Lange, Christian & Knysh, Alexander D. (eds.) (2022). Sufi cosmology. Boston: Brill.
  55. ^ Noegel, Scott B. & Wheeler, Brannon M. (2010) The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism. Scarecrow Press ISBN 978-1-461-71895-6 page 170
  56. ^ translator: Gibril Fouad Haddad, author: ʿAbd Allah ibn ʿUmar al-Baydawi, 2016, The Lights Of Revelation And The Secrets Of Interpretation, ISBN 978-0-992-63357-8
  57. ^ Fahd, T. and Rippin, A., “S̲h̲ayṭān”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 17 August 2023 doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1054 First published online: 2012 First print edition: ISBN 9789004161214, 1960-2007
  58. ^ a b Islam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.
  59. ^ Harvey, Ramon. Transcendent God, Rational World: A Maturidi Theology. Edinburgh University Press, 2021.
  60. ^ Yazaki, Saeko. "Classes of Beings in Sufism." Sufi Cosmology. Brill, 2022. 68-88.
  61. ^ Lange, Christian (2016). Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions. Cambridge United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3. p- 140
  62. ^ a b c d e Hanegraaff, Wouter J.; Kripal, Jeffrey (2008). Hidden intercourse : eros and sexuality in the history of Western esotericism (PDF). Leiden: Brill. pp. 53–56, 58. ISBN 978-90-474-4358-2. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  63. ^ Köse S. Ci̇nlerle Evli̇li̇k Konusunda Hanefî Faki̇hi̇ Hâmi̇d El-İmâdî’ni̇n (1103-1171/1692-1758) Teka’ku’u’ş-Şenn Fî Ni̇kâhi̇’l-Ci̇nn Adli Ri̇salesi̇. Journal of Islamic Law Studies. 2010;(15):453-464. Accessed January 25, 2022.
  64. ^ a b Olomi, Ali A. (2021). "Jinn in the Quran". In Archer, George; Dakake, Maria M.; Madigan, Daniel A. (eds.). The Routledge Companion to the Qur'an. Routledge. p. 145.
  65. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 52.
  66. ^ Juan Eduardo Campo (2009) Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing ISBN 978-1-438-12696-8 page 402
  67. ^ Irani, Ayesha A. The Muhammad Avat? ra: Salvation History, Translation, and the Making of Bengali Islam. Oxford University Press, 2020. p. 183-186
  68. ^ Heuer, B., Boykova, E. V., Kellner-Heinkele, B. (2020). Man and Nature in the Altaic World.: Proceedings of the 49th Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Berlin, July 30 – August 4, 2006. Deutschland: De Gruyter. p. 300-301
  69. ^ Muhaimin, A.G. (2006). The Islamic Traditions of Cirebon: Ibadat and Adat among Javanese Muslims. ANU E Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-920942-31-1.
  70. ^ a b Gregg, G. S. (2005). The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 127
  71. ^ Celia E. Rothenberg Spirits of Palestine: Gender, Society, and Stories of the Jinn Rowman & Littlefield, 5 Nov 2004 ISBN 9781461741237 pp. 29-33
  72. ^ Bullard, A. (2022). Spiritual and Mental Health Crisis in Globalizing Senegal: A History of Transcultural Psychiatry. USA: Taylor & Francis.
  73. ^ Sidky, M. Homayun. "" Malang", Sufis, and Mystics: An Ethnographic and Historical Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan." Asian Folklore Studies (1990): 275-301.
  74. ^ Zarcone, Thierry. "Shamanism in Turkey: Bards, Masters of the Jinns, and Healers." Shamanism and Islam: Sufism, Healing Rituals and Spirits in the Muslim World (2013): 169-202.
  75. ^ a b Hughes, Thomas Patrick (1885). "Genii". Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies. London, UK: W.H. Allen. pp. 134–136. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  76. ^ Türk Söylence Sözlüğü, Deniz Karakurt, Türkiye, 2011
  77. ^ "İn cin ne demek? İn cin TDK sözlük anlamı nedir?". Mynet Eğitim. 24 May 2022.
  78. ^ Robert Elsie A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture C. Hurst & Co. Publishers 2001 ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1 p. 134
  79. ^ MacDonald, D.B., Massé, H., Boratav, P.N., Nizami, K.A. and Voorhoeve, P., "Ḏj̲inn", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 15 November 2019 doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0191 First published online: 2012 First print edition: ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4, 1960–2007.
  80. ^ Gingrich, Andre (1995). "Spirits of the border: Some remarks on the connotation of jinn in north-western Yemen". Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 13: 199–212. JSTOR 25802775. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  81. ^ Joseph P. Laycock Spirit Possession around the World: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures ABC-CLIO 2015 ISBN 978-1-610-69590-9 page 243
  82. ^ ibn Ibraaheem Ameen, Abuʼl-Mundhir Khaleel (2015). The Jinn and Human Sickness: Remedies in the Light of the Qurʼaan and Sunnah. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Darussalam. ISBN 9789960732442.
  83. ^ Tekin, L. (1983). Sevgili Arsiz Ölüm [Dear shameless Death].
  84. ^ Değirmenci, Aslı (9 August 2013). Mapping Geographies in Transition: Magical realism in the fiction of Salman Rushdie, Latife Tekin, and Ben Okri. Department of English (Ph.D. thesis). Buffalo, NY: State University of New York.
  85. ^ Şakrak, Bilgehan Ece (4 January 2019). "Religious evils in Turkish horror films". This Thing of Darkness: Shedding light on evil. BRILL. ISBN 978-1-84888-366-6.
  86. ^ a b Koçer, Zeynep (13 March 2019) [2007]. "The monstrous-feminine and masculinityas abjection in Turkish horror cinema: An analysis of Haunted [Musallat] [by] Alper Mestçi". In Holland, Samantha; Shail, Robert; Gerrard, Steven (eds.). Gender and Contemporary Horror in Film. Emerald Studies in Popular Culture and Gender. Bingley, UK: Emerald. pp. 151–165. doi:10.1108/9781787698970. ISBN 978-1-78769-898-7. S2CID 214474411.
  87. ^ Sengul, Ali. "Cinema, Horror and the Wrath of God: Turkish Islam's Claims in the Kurdish East." Nübihar Akademi 4.14: 11-28.
  88. ^ Gjinali, V., & Tunca, E. A. (2020). A General Look on the Impact of Turkish Horror Movies: An Exploratory Study on the Opinions of Youth on Horror Movies. SAGE Open, 10(4). doi:10.1177/2158244020979701
  89. ^ Khosroshahi, Zahra. "Vampires, Jinn and the Magical in Iranian Horror Films." Frames 16 (2019): 2.
  90. ^ Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 141.
  91. ^ Partovi, Pedram (3 December 2009). "Girls' dormitory: Women's Islam and Iranian horror". Visual Anthropology Review. 25 (2): 186–207. doi:10.1111/j.1548-7458.2009.01041.x. ISSN 1548-7458.
  92. ^ Michael, Cook (2000). The Koran, A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-157827-4. In addition to this presence in the Koran, the genies are also strongly entrenched in Egyptian folk beliefs; in this sense they correspond not just to Biblical spirits but to the elves and fairies of European folklore.
  93. ^ Olupona, Jacob K. (2014). African Religions: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-979058-6. OCLC 839396781.
  94. ^ a b Rassool, G. Hussein (16 July 2015). Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-31744-125-0.
  95. ^ Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 151-152.
  96. ^ Tayob, Shaheed. ReOrient, vol. 6, no. 1, 2020, pp. 108–10. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/reorient.6.1.0108. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024. p. 110
  97. ^ Taneja, Anand Vivek. "Jinnealogy: Everyday life and Islamic theology in post-Partition Delhi." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.3 (2013): 152.
  98. ^ Friedl, E. (2020). Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, Saints, People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86
  99. ^ Huart, Cl. and Massé, H., “Dīw”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 31 January 2024 doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1879 First published online: 2012 First print edition: ISBN 9789004161214, 1960-2007
  100. ^ Omidsalar, Mahmoud محمود امیدسالار (15 December 2000). "Genie". Iranica Online (iranicaonline.org). دانشنامه ایرانیکا. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
  101. ^ Tayob, Shaheed. ReOrient, vol. 6, no. 1, 2020, pp. 108–10. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/reorient.6.1.0108. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024. p. 110
  102. ^ Rassool, G. Hussein (16 August 2018). Evil Eye, Jinn Possession, and Mental Health Issues: An Islamic perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-22698-7.
  103. ^ Větrovec, Lukáš. "Curse, Possession and Other Worlds: Magic and Witchcraft among the Bosniaks." p. 74
  104. ^ a b c Jalal, Baland; Simons-Rudolph, Joseph; Jalal, Bamo; Hinton, Devon E. (1 October 2013). "Explanations of sleep paralysis among Egyptian college students and the general population in Egypt and Denmark". Transcultural Psychiatry. 51 (2): 158–175. doi:10.1177/1363461513503378. PMID 24084761. S2CID 22226921.
  105. ^ Jalal, Baland; Hinton, Devon E. (1 September 2013). "Rates and Characteristics of Sleep Paralysis in the General Population of Denmark and Egypt". Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry. 37 (3): 534–548. doi:10.1007/s11013-013-9327-x. ISSN 0165-005X. PMID 23884906. S2CID 28563727.
  106. ^ a b Lim A, Hoek HW, Blom JD. The attribution of psychotic symptoms to jinn in Islamic patients. Transcultural Psychiatry. 2015;52(1):18-32. doi:10.1177/1363461514543146
  107. ^ Guthrie E, Abraham S, Nawaz S. Process of determining the value of belief about jinn possession and whether or not they are a result of mental illness. BMJ Case Rep. 2016 Feb 2;2016:bcr2015214005. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2015-214005. PMID 26838303; PMCID: PMC4746541.
  108. ^ Uvais, N. A.. Jinn and Psychiatry: Beliefs among (Muslim) doctors. Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 33(1):47-49, Jan–Mar 2017. doi:10.4103/0971-9962.200095
  109. ^ a b c d e Duggan, Terrance (2018). "The just ruler of the age". PHASELIS Journal of Interdisciplinary Mediterranean Studies. 4 (4): 389–421. doi:10.18367/Pha.18024.
  110. ^ Berlekamp, Persis (2011). Wonder, Image, & Cosmos in Medieval Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 71.
  111. ^ de Lafayette, Maximillien (2017). Early & contemporary spirit artists, psychic artists, and medium painters from 5000 BC to the present day economy. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-365-97802-9.
  112. ^ a b Taheri, Alireza. "Comparative Study of «The Book of Felicity» Paintings and Book of «Al-Bulhan» of Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi." Honar-Ha-Ye-Ziba: Honar-Ha-Ye-Tajassomi 22.1 (2017): 15-29.
  113. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Carboni, Stefano (2013). "The Book of Surprises (Kitab al-Buhlan) of the Bodleian Library". The La Trobe Journal. 91: 27–28.
  114. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 80.
  115. ^ El-Zein 2009, p. 82.
  116. ^ Al-Saleh, Yasmine (2010). "Amulets and Talismans from the Islamic World". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  117. ^ Gerda Sengers Women and Demons: Cultic Healing in Islamic Egypt BRILL 2003 ISBN 978-9-004-12771-5 page 31
  118. ^ Ian Richard Netton Encyclopaedia of Islam Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-135-17960-1 page 376
  119. ^ Morrow, John Andrew (27 November 2013) Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on sacred symbolism, McFarland, ISBN 978-1-476-61288-1
  120. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Travis Zadeh Commanding Demons and Jinn: The Sorcerer in Early Islamic Thought Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014
  121. ^ Felek, Özgen. "Fears, Hopes, and Dreams: The Talismanic Shirts of Murād III." Arabica 64.3-4 (2017): 647-672.
  122. ^ Mommersteeg, Geert. “‘He Has Smitten Her to the Heart with Love’ The Fabrication of an Islamic Love-Amulet in West Africa.” Anthropos, vol. 83, no. 4/6, 1988, pp. 501–510. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463380. Accessed 13 June 2020.
  123. ^ a b Crone, Patricia (2016). "QS 32 Q 37:6–11: Crone". In Azaiez, Mehdi; Reynolds, Gabriel Said; Tesei, Tommaso; Zafer, Hamza M. (eds.). The Qur'an Seminar Commentary / Le Qur'an Seminar: A Collaborative Study of 50 Qur'anic Passages / Commentaire collaboratif de 50 passages coraniques (in French and English) (bilingual ed.). De Gruyter. pp. 307–310. ISBN 9783110444797. ISBN 3110444798
  124. ^ Decharneux 2023, p. 227–228.
  125. ^ Falconer, Joshua (2019). "Familiar spirits in the Qurʾān: retracing the origins of the jinn". Henoch. 41 (2). ISSN 0393-6805.
  126. ^ YALÇINKAYA, Mustafa. "İLÂHİ DİNLERİN CİN KAVRAMI ALGISI: GENEL BİR YAKLAŞIM." PEARSON JOURNAL 5.7 (2020): 170-183.
  127. ^ Bilu, Yoram. "The Moroccan Demon in Israel: The Case of 'Evil Spirit Disease.'" Ethos, vol. 8, no. 1, 1980, pp. 24–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/640134. Accessed 21 Apr. 2023.
  128. ^ Grasso, Valentina A. (2023). "Historicizing Ontologies: Qur'ānic Preternatural Creatures between Ancient Topoi and Emerging Traditions". Journal of Late Antiquity. 16 (1): 162–163. doi:10.1353/jla.2023.0007. ISSN 1942-1273.
  129. ^ Sinai 2023, p. 183–186.

Sources

[edit]
  • Aarne, A.; Thompson, S. (1973). The Types of the Folktale (2nd rev. ed.). Helsinki, FI: Folklore Fellows Communications 184.
  • Balkhī, Abu’l-Moayyad (1993). Smynova, L.P. (ed.). Ajā'eb al-donyā. Moscow, RU.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology.
  • Christensen, A. (1941). Essai sur la Demonologie iranienne [Essay on the Demons of Iran]. Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser (in French). Denmark: Det. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
  • Decharneux, Julien (2023). Creation and Contemplation The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background. De Gruyter.
  • Dozy, R. (1967). Supplément aux Dictionnaires arabes (in French) (3rd ed.). Leyden.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • el-Shamy, H. (1995). Folk Traditions of the Arab World: A guide to motif classification. Vol. 1–2. Bloomington, IL.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and the intelligent world of the Jinn. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3200-9.
  • Esterābādī, Solṭān-Moḥammad ibn Tāj al-Dīn Ḥasan (n.d.). Toḥfat al-majāles. Tehran, IR.[full citation needed]
  • Kolaynī, Abū Jaʿfar Moḥammad (1988). Ghaffārī, A. (ed.). Ketāb al-kāfī. Vol. 1–8. Tehran, IR.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Lane, E.W. (1968). An Arabic-English Lexicon (PDF). Beirut, LB. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2008.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Loeffler, L. (1988). Islam in Practice: Religious beliefs in a Persian village. New York, NY.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Marzolph, U. (1984). Typologie des persischen Volksmärchens [Typology of Persian Folktales] (in German). Beirut, LB: Massé, Croyances.
  • Mīhandūst, M. (1976). Padīdahā-ye wahmī-e dīrsāl dar janūb-e Khorāsān. Honar o mordom. pp. 44–51.
  • Nöldeke, T. (1913). "Arabs (Ancient)". In Hastings, J. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. I. Edinburgh, UK. pp. 659–673.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Nünlist, Tobias (2015). Dämonenglaube im Islam. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-110-33168-4.
  • Rāzī, Abu al-Futūḥ (1988). Tafsīr-e rawḥ al-jenān va rūḥ al-janān. Vol. IX–XVII. Tehran, IR.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (pub. so far)
  • Sinai, Nicolai (2023). Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary. Princeton University Press.
  • Ṭabarī, Moḥammad Ayyūb (1971). Matīnī, J. (ed.). Tuḥfat al-gharā'ib. Tehran, IR.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Thompson, S. (1955). Motif-Index of Folk-Literature. Vol. 1–6 (rev. ed.). Bloomington, IL.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Thompson, S.; Roberts, W. (1960). Types of Indic Oral Tales. Helsinki, FI: Folklore Fellows Communications 180.
  • Ṭūsī, Moḥammad b. Maḥmūd (1966). Sotūda, M. (ed.). Ajāyeb al-makhlūqāt va gharā'eb al-mawjūdāt. Tehran, IR.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Yazdī, Abū Bakr Moṭahhar Jamālī (1967). Afshār, Ī. (ed.). Farrokh-nāma. Tehran, IR.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Further reading

[edit]
  • Asad, Muhammad (1980). "Appendix III: On the term and concept of jinn". The Message of the Qu'rán. Gibraltar, Spain: Dar al-Andalus Limited. ISBN 1-904510-00-0.
  • Crapanzano, V. (1973). The Hamadsha: A study in Moroccan ethnopsychiatry. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Dibi, Tofik (2021). Djinn. Queer Politics and Cultures. Translated by Barr, Nicolaas P. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 9781438481302.
  • Drijvers, H.J.W. (1976). The Religion of Palmyra. Leiden, NL: Brill.
  • El-Zein, Amira (2006). "Jinn". In Meri, J.F. (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization – an Encyclopedia. New York, NY & Abingdon, UK: Routledge. pp. 420–421.
  • Goodman, L.E. (1978). The case of the animals versus man before the king of the jinn: A tenth-century ecological fable of the pure brethren of Basra. Library of Classical Arabic Literature. Vol. 3. Boston, MA: Twayne.
  • Maarouf, M. (2007). Jinn Eviction as a Discourse of Power: A multidisciplinary approach to Moroccan magical beliefs and practices. Leiden: Brill.
  • Peterson, Mark Allen (2007). "From Jinn to Genies: Intertextuality, media, and the making of global folklore". In Sherman, Sharon R.; Koven, Mikel J. (eds.). Folklore/Cinema: Popular film as vernacular culture. Logan, UT: Utah State University Press – via Utah State U. digital commons.
  • Taneja, Anand V. (2017). Jinnealogy: Time, Islam, and ecological thought in the medieval ruins of Delhi. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0393-6.
  • Zbinden, E. (1953). Die Djinn des Islam und der altorientalische Geisterglaube [The Djinn of Islam and Ancient Eastern Spiritual Belief] (in German). Bern, CH: Haupt.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jinn&oldid=1257339063"