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Premarital sex

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Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007[1]

Premarital sex is sex before marriage. Premarital sex is sex between two people who are not married to each other. Premarital sex is considered a sin by a number of religions and also considered a moral issue which is taboo in many cultures. Since the Sexual Revolution of the 1960s, it has become accepted by certain liberal movements, especially in Western countries. A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in "Muslim Majority Countries", such as Malaysia, Jordan and Pakistan, each having over 90% disapproval, while people in Western European countries were the most accepting, with Spain, Germany, and France expressing less than 10% disapproval.[2]

Definition

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Until the 1950s,[3] "premarital sex" referred to sexual relations between two people prior to marrying each other.[4] During that period, it was the norm in Western societies for men and women to marry above the age of 21, and there were no considerations that one who had sex would not marry. The term was used instead of fornication, which had negative connotations,[3] and was closely related to the concept and approval of virginity, which is sexual abstinence until marriage.

The meaning has since shifted to refer to any sexual relations a person has prior to marriage and removing the emphasis on the relationship of the people involved.[4] The definition has a degree of ambiguity. It is not clear whether sex between individuals legally forbidden from marrying or the sexual relations of one uninterested in marrying would be considered premarital.[3]

Alternative terms for premarital sex have been suggested, including non-marital sex (which overlaps with adultery), youthful sex, adolescent sex, and young-adult sex. These terms also suffer from a degree of ambiguity, as the definition of having sex differs from person to person.[3]

Prevalence

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In modern Western cultures, social value of sexual abstinence before marriage has declined. Historically, a significant portion of people had engaged in premarital sex, although the number willing to admit to this was not always high. In a study conducted in the United States, 61 percent of men and 12 percent of women born prior to 1910 admitted to having premarital sex; this gender disparity may have been caused by cultural double standards regarding the admission of sexual activity, or by men frequenting prostitutes.[3]

Starting in the 1920s, and especially after World War II, premarital sex became more common, particularly among women. By the end of the 20th century, between 75 and 80 percent of Americans had experienced sexual intercourse before the age of 22. This has been attributed to numerous causes, including the increasing median age at marriage and the widespread availability of efficient contraceptives.[3]

According to a 2001 UNICEF survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two-thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have sex.[5] In a 2005 Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn't really want to do".[6] Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.[7][8]

A majority of Americans have had premarital sex, according to a 2007 article in Public Health Reports. This is true for current young adults and also young adults in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Data from the National Survey of Family Growth indicate that in 2002, 77% of Americans had sex by age 20, and of that percent, 75% had premarital sex. Of women who were born between 1949 and 1978, approximately 91% had premarital sex by age 30, and of women who were born between 1939 and 1948, 82% of them had had premarital sex by age 30.[9]

When comparing the General Social Survey of 1988–1996 to the one of 2004–2012, researchers found that participants of 2004–2012 did not report more sexual partners since the age of 18, nor more frequent sex or sex partners during the past year than those respondents of the previous survey. There appears to be no substantial change in sexual behavior contrasting the earlier era to the current one. Current-era respondents were more likely to report having sex with a casual date or friend than reporting having sex with a spouse or regular partner.[10] From 1943 to 1999, young women's approval towards premarital sex increased from 12% to 73%, and from 40% to 79% among young men. The percentage of people who felt guilt around premarital sex also decreased during this period. As of 2005, less than 25% of people believe premarital sex is “always or almost always” wrong.[11]

Gender differences

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Within the United States, a cohort study of young adults in university found that men self-report more permissive attitudes about casual sex than women.[12] Another study found university students can be grouped by their ideal relationships—those who express a desire for sex exclusively in a committed partnership have fewer hookups and "friends with benefits" partners than those categorised as desiring "flexible" relationships and recreational sex.[13]

A 2006 study that analysed the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study found that more boys report having non-dating sexual partners than girls. Of this sample, a third of boys only have had sex with their romantic partner. A third of boys who have had sex with a partner they are not dating within the past year wished for the girl to be their girlfriend.[14] Many young adults are more likely to engage in sex with romantic partners than with casual acquaintances or "friends with benefits."[15]

A 2011 study that surveyed young adults about their emotional reactions after premarital sexual encounters found that men reported more positive and fewer negative emotional reactions, and both men and women reported that the experience was largely more positive than negative.[16] Women reported that condom use was associated with fewer positive and more negative emotional reactions, and for men condom use was associated with fewer negative emotional reactions.[16] A 23-year study in a Human Sexuality class investigated gender differences in men and women's reactions to their first sexual experience. In the earlier years of the study, men reported more pleasure and greater anxiety than women, while women reported more feelings of guilt than men. Cohort studies carried out over 23 years found that in later years, women expressed greater pleasure and less guilt. The differences between emotional reactions among men and women decreased slightly during the 23 years.[17] Such decreases in differences to first sexual intercourse may be a result of the increasing normality of premarital sex in America. An international online sex survey compared responses of residents of 37 countries against World Economic Forum figures for gender equality in those countries, finding that countries with high gender equality had respondents report more casual sex, a greater number of sex partners, younger ages for first sex, and greater tolerance of premarital sex.[18]

In some countries, gender differences with premarital sex can be linked to virginity. In India, a woman may undergo a "virginity test" on her wedding night where she can be banished by her husband or subject to an honor killing if found she is no longer a virgin. Men are not subjected to this same test and could get away with having premarital sex.[19] In Iran, if a husband finds out his wife had premarital sex, it can be used as grounds for divorce. Therefore, hymen reconstruction surgery is not uncommon for women who wish to prove their virginity.[20]

Ethnicity differences

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Different ethnic and cultural groups in America have varied religiosity and sexual attitudes. A study with college participants found that Asians had more conservative sexual attitudes compared to Hispanics and Euro-Americans. Hispanics reported sexual attitudes similar to that of Euro-Americans. Asian, Hispanic, and Euro-American women with high levels of spirituality were found to have a correlation between conservative sexual attitudes and perceived religiosity. Religiosity and religious fundamentalism most strongly predicted conservative sexual attitudes in Euro-Americans and Asians.[21]

In the Indian city of Mumbai, research showed that among college-age students, 3% of females affirmed having premarital sex and 26% of males affirmed having premarital sex.[22] Population Council, an international NGO, released a working report in 2006 showing similar statistics nationally in India, with fewer than ten percent of young females reporting having had premarital sex, compared with 15% to 30% of young males.[23] In Pakistan, 11% of men were reported as having participated in pre-marital sex, although a greater percentage, 29% reported having participated in non-marital sex.[24]

Safe sex practices

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People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals to take precautions to protect themselves against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS.[25] There is also a risk of an unplanned pregnancy in heterosexual relationships.[26] Around the world, sex education programs are run to teach school students about reproductive health, safe sex, sexual abstinence, and birth control.

Sexual activity among unmarried people who do not have access to information about reproductive health and birth control can increase the rate of teenage pregnancies and contraction of sexually transmitted infections. The rates of teenage pregnancy vary and range from 143 per 1000 girls in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1000 girls in South Korea. The rate for the United States is 52.1 per 1000, the highest in the developed world, and about four times the European Union average.[5][27] The teenage pregnancy rates between countries must take into account the level of general sex education available and access to contraceptive options.

Religion

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Views on premarital sex are often shaped by religious teachings and beliefs, in part because ancient religious texts forbid it.[28][29] People who actively practice religion are less likely to engage in premarital sex or at least go longer before having sex for the first time.[28][29] Evangelical Christian young adults (ages 15 through 22) who are never married are much less likely to engage in premarital sex if they attend church services on a weekly basis, compared to those with no church attendance.[30] Additionally, among Christians who have never been married, those who consider religion to be "very important" engage less in premarital sexual intercourse than those who view religion as "somewhat important".[31] Those young adult Christians who belong to conservative denominations (e.g. Conservative Mennonites) are less likely to engage in premarital sex than those who are members of mainline churches.[32]

One study published in 2013 indicated that Muslims and Hindus are less likely to report having premarital sex than Christians, Jews, and Buddhists.[28] The study indicated that people in predominantly Islamic societies have the lowest report of engaging in premarital sex, 53% lower than Christians (primarily in Europe and North America).[28] Buddhists, Jews, and individuals from other religious traditions are more likely to report premarital sex compared to Christians.[28] While Christianity, Judaism, and Islam have strict rules regarding sex outside of marriage, Buddhism lacks such specific behavioral prohibitions, though its ethical precepts still discourage premarital sex.[28][33] Studies shows Buddhists are more likely than Muslims, Christians, Hindus, and people of traditional faiths to report premarital sex, with rates similar to Jews and no significant differences regarding extramarital sex.[28]

Students who attend a faith-based (predominantly Christian) university view premarital sexual activity more negatively than students who do not.[34]

Cultural views

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The cultural acceptability of premarital sex varies between individuals, cultures and time periods. Western cultures have traditionally been disapproving of it, on occasions forbidding it. In other cultures, such as the Muria people of Madhya Pradesh, sexuality prior to marriage is accepted and at times expected.[3]

Individual views within a given society can vary greatly, with expectations ranging from total abstinence to frequent casual sex. These views are dependent on the holders' value system, as formed by their parents, religion, friends, experiences, and in many cases the media.[3] Unmarried cohabitation and births outside marriage have increased in many Western countries during the past few decades. Economist Jeremy Greenwood (2019, Chp. 4) discusses how technological progress in contraception led to a rise in premarital sex and less stigmatization by parents, churches, and governments. He argues that singles weigh the cost (a potential pregnancy) and benefit of premarital sex. As contraception improved the cost of premarital sexual activity fell. Parents and social institutions also weigh the cost and benefit of socialization. Technological improvement in contraception reduced the benefit of socialization because premarital sexual activity was no longer as risky in terms of unwanted pregnancies, which placed a strain on parents and social institutions. As a result, there was social change.

United Kingdom

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Sex before the public marriage ceremony was normal in the Anglican Church until the Hardwicke Marriage Act of 1753, which for the first time required all marriages in England and Wales occur in their parish church. (The law also applied to Catholics, but Jews and Quakers were exempt.) Before its enactment couples lived and slept together after their betrothal or "the spousals", which was considered a legal marriage. Until the mid-1700s it was normal and acceptable for the bride to be pregnant at the nuptials, the later public ceremony for the marriage. The Marriage Act combined the spousals and nuptials, and by the start of the 19th century social convention prescribed that brides be virgins at marriage. Illegitimacy became more socially discouraged, with first pregnancies outside marriage declining from 40% to 20% during the Victorian era. At the start of the 21st century, the figure was back up to 40%.[35]

In the United Kingdom, births outside marriage were up to 47.6% by 2012.[36] In 2014, only 13% of the population found premarital sex unacceptable.[2]

United States

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During the colonial period, premarital sex was publicly frowned upon but privately condoned to an extent. Unmarried teenagers were often allowed to spend the night in bed together, though some measures such as bundling were sometimes attempted to prevent sexual intercourse. Even though premarital sex was somewhat condoned, having a child outside wedlock was not. If a pregnancy resulted from premarital sex, the young couple were expected to marry. Marriage and birth records from the late 1700s reveal that between 30 and 40 percent of New England brides were pregnant before marriage.[37]

The growing prevalence of the automobile, and corresponding changes in dating practices, caused premarital sex to become more prevalent. Alfred Kinsey found that American women who became sexually mature during the 1920s were much less likely to be virgins at marriage than those who became mature before World War I. A majority of women during the 1920s under the age of 30 were nonetheless virgins at marriage, however, and half of those who were not only had sex with their fiancés.[38] A 1938 survey of American college students found that 52% of men and 24% of women had had sex. 37% of women surveyed reported being virgins but believed sex outside marriage was acceptable.[39] Prior to the middle of the 20th century, sexuality was generally constrained. Sexual interactions between people without plans to marry was considered unacceptable, with betrothal slightly lessening the stigma. However, premarital sex was still frowned upon.[3]

Beginning in the 1950s, as premarital sex became more common, the stigma attached to it lessened for many people. In 1969, 70% of Americans disapproved of premarital sex, but by 1973 this number had dropped to 50%.[40] By 2000, roughly a third of couples in the United States had lived together prior to marriage. During the second half of the twentieth century, premarital sex has remained steady for men, but 60% more women lost their virginity prior to marriage during this same period.[41] This has altered the traditional nuclear family, with half of all children living with a single parent at some point in their life.[41]

During this period of sexual liberation, sexual media and pornography became more prevalent and normalized premarital sex. People who watched pornography viewed both adult and teenage premarital sex as societally acceptable.[42]

However, premarital sex was considered unacceptable by 30% of the population in a 2014 study, while 29% found it acceptable, and 36% considered it not a moral issue.[3][2]

Studies

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According to a 2004 peer-reviewed study published in the Journal of Marriage and Family found that women who have more than one premarital sexual relationship have a higher likelihood in the long run of disruptions if ever married, with this effect being the "strongest for women who have multiple premarital co-residential unions".[43] Kahn and London (1991) found that premarital sex and divorce are positively correlated.[44]

Law

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In December 2022 Indonesia's parliament passed a bill that partially criminalizes sex outside marriage and cohabitation.[45] Government officials have stated that the new criminal code respects privacy and human rights, due to the law being codified and complaint based, which can only be filed by a spouse or parents or children. With the code, government expected that local law enforcement will not invade privacy due to being codified and there will be no more local regulation sweeping power to their local law enforcement. "When these articles are regulated in the criminal code, there would definitely be no raids," deputy minister of the Ministry of Law and Human Rights said. He explained that so far, there have been regulations in several regions based on which, officers of the Public Order Agency (Satpol PP) have carried out raids at hotels and inns. After the articles are regulated in the criminal code and an explanation is provided, those regulations that are beneath the law will all be revoked, he said.[46] Indonesia is predominantly Muslim.[47][48]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^ "Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States". CDC/National Center for Health Statistics. May 13, 2009. Retrieved September 24, 2011.
  2. ^ a b c "Global Views on Morality - Premarital Sex". PewResearch Global Attitudes Project. 15 Apr 2014. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sex and Society 663-666.
  4. ^ a b Regnerus et al.
  5. ^ a b UNICEF. (2001). "A League Table of Teenage Births in Rich Nations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-06-29. (888 KB). Retrieved July 7, 2006.
  6. ^ "U.S.Teen Sexual Activity" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2020-05-10. (147 KB) Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2005. Retrieved 23 Jan 2007
  7. ^ The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). What the Polling Data Tell Us: A Summary of Past Surveys on Teen Pregnancy. Retrieved July 13, 2006. Archived May 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  8. ^ Allen, Colin. (May 22, 2003). "Peer Pressure and Teen Sex." Psychology Today.'.' Retrieved July 14, 2006.
  9. ^ L.B. Finer (2007). "Trends in Premarital Sex in the United States, 1954–2003". Public Health Reports. 122 (1). Public Health Report: 73–8. doi:10.1177/003335490712200110. PMC 1802108. PMID 17236611.
  10. ^ M.A. Monto; A.G. Carey (2014). "A new standard of sexual behavior? Are claims associated with the "hookup culture" supported by general social survey data?". The Journal of Sex Research. 51 (6): 605–615. doi:10.1080/00224499.2014.906031. PMID 24750070. S2CID 42148077.
  11. ^ B.E. Wells; J.M. Twenge (2005). "Changes in young people's sexual behavior and attitudes, 1943–1999: A cross-temporal meta-analysis". Review of General Psychology. 9 (3): 249–261. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.3.249. S2CID 145404242.
  12. ^ Sprecher S, Treger S, Sakaluk JK (2013). "Premarital sexual standards and sociosexuality: gender, ethnicity, and cohort differences". Arch Sex Behav. 42 (8): 1395–405. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0145-6. PMID 23842785. S2CID 11575564.
  13. ^ Olmstead SB, Billen RM, Conrad KA, Pasley K, Fincham FD (2013). "Sex, commitment, and casual sex relationships among college men: a mixed-methods analysis". Arch Sex Behav. 42 (4): 561–71. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-0047-z. PMID 23297148. S2CID 4248050.
  14. ^ Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (2006). "The Relationship Contexts of "Nonrelationship" Sex". Journal of Adolescent Research. 21 (5): 459–483. doi:10.1177/0743558406291692. S2CID 145785599.
  15. ^ Furman W, Shaffer L (2011). "Romantic partners, friends, friends with benefits, and casual acquaintances as sexual partners". J Sex Res. 48 (6): 554–64. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.535623. PMC 3163778. PMID 21128155.
  16. ^ a b Owen J, Fincham FD (2011). "Young adults' emotional reactions after hooking up encounters". Arch Sex Behav. 40 (2): 321–30. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9652-x. PMID 20809375. S2CID 4171705.
  17. ^ Sprecher S (2014). "Evidence of change in men's versus women's emotional reactions to first sexual intercourse: a 23-year study in a human sexuality course at a midwestern university". J Sex Res. 51 (4): 466–72. doi:10.1080/00224499.2013.867923. PMID 24611882. S2CID 42350428.
  18. ^ Baumeister RF, Mendoza JP (2011). "Cultural variations in the sexual marketplace: gender equality correlates with more sexual activity". J Soc Psychol. 151 (3): 350–60. doi:10.1080/00224545.2010.481686. PMID 21675186. S2CID 29088985.
  19. ^ Singh, Shri Kant; Vishwakarma, Deepanjali; Sharma, Santosh Kumar (2020-09-10). "An Epidemiology of Premarital Sexual Behaviour in India: Exploring Gender Differences". Journal of Health Management. 22 (3): 389–412. doi:10.1177/0972063420937938. S2CID 225186896.
  20. ^ Mokhtari, Saba; Shariat, Seyed Vahid; Ardebili, Mehrdad Eftekhar; Shalbafan, Mohammadreza (2020-07-16). "Iranian students' attitudes toward premarital sex, marriage, and family in different college majors". Journal of American College Health. 70 (4): 1186–1194. doi:10.1080/07448481.2020.1789150. ISSN 0744-8481. PMID 32672512. S2CID 220580888.
  21. ^ Ahrold TK, Meston CM (2010). "Ethnic differences in sexual attitudes of U.S. college students: gender, acculturation, and religiosity factors". Arch Sex Behav. 39 (1): 190–202. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9406-1. PMC 4426857. PMID 18839302.
  22. ^ Joseph, Suad; Naǧmābādī, Afsāna (2003). Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Family, Body, Sexuality And Health. Brill Publishers. p. 387. ISBN 9789004128194.
  23. ^ Himanshi, Dhawan; Kurup, Saira (24 October 2006). "Pre-marital sex: Girls like to keep mum". The Times of India. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
  24. ^ Mir, Ali M.; Abdul Wajid, Stephen Pearson; Mumraiz Khan and Irfan Masood (2013). "Exploring urban male non-marital sexual behaviours in Pakistan". Reproductive Health. 10 (1): 22. doi:10.1186/1742-4755-10-22. ISSN 1742-4755. PMC 3639093. PMID 23577856.
  25. ^ Center for Disease Control.
  26. ^ Speidel, Harper, and Shields; 2008.
  27. ^ Treffers PE (November 2003). "Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (in Dutch). 147 (47): 2320–5. PMID 14669537.
  28. ^ a b c d e f g Adamczyk, Amy; Hayes, Brittany E. (2012-08-30). "Religion and Sexual Behaviors: Understanding the Influence of Islamic Cultures and Religious Affiliation for Explaining Sex Outside of Marriage". American Sociological Review. 77 (5): 723–746. doi:10.1177/0003122412458672. S2CID 143083219.
  29. ^ a b Jung, Jong Hyun (2015-07-20). "A Cross-national Analysis of Religion and Attitudes toward Premarital Sex: Do Economic Contexts Matter?". Sociological Perspectives. 59 (4): 798–817. doi:10.1177/0731121415595428. S2CID 147856380.
  30. ^ Ayers, David J. (2019). Current Sexual Practices of Evangelical Teens and Young Adults (PDF). Institute for Family Studies. However, regular church attendance is often associated with lower levels of sexual activity among unmarried young people. This was also the case here. As Figure 8 shows, never-married young people who attended church weekly were much less likely to have engaged in sexual intercourse than those who did not, especially when weekly attenders are compared to those who never attend church. The pattern is similar when considering percentages who had engaged in any form of sexual activity.
  31. ^ Ayers, David J. (2019). Current Sexual Practices of Evangelical Teens and Young Adults (PDF). Institute for Family Studies. Considering one's religion to be an important part of one's daily life is also often associated with lower levels of premarital sex. This was true here, as Figure 9 demonstrates. Never-married respondents who considered religion to be "very important" are less likely to have engaged in sexual intercourse than those who said it was only "somewhat important."
  32. ^ Rostosky, Sharon Scales; Wilcox, Brian L.; Wright, Margaret Laurie Comer; Randall, Brandy A. (2014). "The Impact of Religiosityon Adolescent Sexual Behavior:A Review of the Evidence". Journal of Adolescent Research. 19 (6): 684.
  33. ^ Hartnett, Kevin (3 March 2013). "Which religions have the most premarital sex?". The Boston Globe.
  34. ^ Yong, Hansel Teo Sze; Simon, Amanda (2020-03-11). "Perceptions of Premarital Sex among Students at a Faith-Based University". HUMAN BEHAVIOR, DEVELOPMENT and SOCIETY. 21 (1): 16–27. ISSN 2651-1762.
  35. ^ "The no-sex 'myth'". BBC News. 2002-10-03. Retrieved May 24, 2012.
  36. ^ Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table
  37. ^ Courtship and Sexual Freedom in Eighteenth-Century America
  38. ^ Ling, Peter (November 1989). "Sex and the Automobile in the Jazz Age". History Today. 39 (11).
  39. ^ ""Youth and Sex": 1,300 boys and girls answer questions". Life. 1938-06-06. p. 66. Retrieved December 9, 2011.
  40. ^ Alesha Doan (2007). Opposition and Intimidation: The Abortion Wars and Strategies of Political Harassment. University of Michigan Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9780472069750.
  41. ^ a b Asadi, Muhammed (2015-01-02). "The Sexuality Transition: Premarital Sex, the Nuclear Family, and "Doing" Gender". Women's Studies. 44 (1): 23–53. doi:10.1080/00497878.2014.971216. ISSN 0049-7878. S2CID 144788632.
  42. ^ Wright, Paul J. (January 2015). "Americans' Attitudes Toward Premarital Sex and Pornography Consumption: A National Panel Analysis". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 44 (1): 89–97. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0353-8. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 25273378. S2CID 29088118.
  43. ^ Teachman, Jay (2003). "Premarital Sex, Premarital Cohabitation, and the Risk of Subsequent Marital Dissolution Among Women". Journal of Marriage and Family. 65 (2): 444–455. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00444.x. Women who cohabit prior to marriage or who have premarital sex have an increased likelihood of marital disruption. Considering the joint effects of premarital cohabitation and premarital sex, as well as histories of pre-marital relationships, extends previous research. The most salient finding from this analysis is that women whose intimate premarital relationships are limited to their husbands—either premarital sex alone or premarital cohabitation—do not experience an increased risk of divorce. It is only women who have more than one intimate pre-marital relationship who have an elevated risk of marital disruption. This effect is strongest for women who have multiple premarital coresidental unions.
  44. ^ Teachman, Jay (2003). "Premarital Sex, Premarital Cohabitation, and the Risk of Subsequent Marital Dissolution Among Women". Journal of Marriage and Family. 65 (2): 444–455. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00444.x. The literature on the relationship between pre-marital intercourse and divorce is limited. Kahn and London (1991) found a relatively strong positive relationship between the two. They suggested, as is the case for premarital cohabitation, that the relationship may be due to either selectivity on preexisting characteristics or altered perceptions of marriage and alternatives to marriage that occur as the result of engaging in premarital sex.
  45. ^ "Indonesia passes legislation banning sex outside marriage". the Guardian. 2022-12-06. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
  46. ^ "New criminal code and respect for privacy, human rights". Antara News. 2022-12-16. Retrieved 2022-09-22.
  47. ^ Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L., eds. (1993). Indonesia: A Country Study, Chapter Islam.
  48. ^ Gross, L. Max (2016). A Muslim archipelago: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia. Washington, D.C.: National Defense Intelligence College. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-932946-19-2.

Bibliography

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