Vicente Guerrero

This article is about the Mexican president. For other uses, see Vicente Guerrero (disambiguation).

In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Guerrero and the second or maternal family name is Saldaña.

Vicente Guerrero
A half-length, posthumous portrait by Anacleto Escutia (1850), Museo Nacional de Historia. An inscription on the reverse side of the painting claims it is a "copy of an original which belongs to the Excellent Ayuntamiento of Mexico."
2nd President of Mexico
In office 1 April – 17 December 1829
Vice President	Anastasio Bustamante
Preceded by	Guadalupe Victoria
Succeeded by	José María Bocanegra
Minister of War and Navy
In office 8 – 25 December 1828
President	Guadalupe Victoria
Preceded by	José Castro
Succeeded by	Francisco Moctezuma
Member of the Supreme Executive Power
In office 1 April 1823 – 10 October 1824
Preceded by	Constitutional Monarchy Agustín I
Succeeded by	Federal Republic Guadalupe Victoria
Personal details
Born	Vicente Ramón Guerrero (1782-08-10)10 August 1782 (baptism date) Tixtla, Kingdom of Mexico, Viceroyalty of New Spain
Died	14 February 1831(1831-02-14) (aged 48) Cuilapan, Oaxaca, Mexico
Cause of death	Execution by firing squad
Political party	Liberal Party
Spouse	María Guadalupe Hernández
Children	2
Profession	Military Officer Politician
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	Army of the Three Guarantees Mexico
Branch/service	Mexican Army
Years of service	1810–1821
Rank	General Lieutenant colonel Captain
Commands	Mexican War of Independence
Battles/wars	Battle of El Veladero Siege of Cuautla Battle of Izúcar Siege of Huajuapan de León Battle of Zitlala Capture of Oaxaca Siege of Acapulco

Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña (Spanish: [biˈsente raˈmoŋ ɡeˈreɾo]; baptized 10 August 1782 – 14 February 1831) was a Mexican military officer, from 1810-1821and statesman who became the nation's second president in 1829. He was one of the leading generals who fought against Spain during the Mexican War of Independence.According to historian, Theodore G. Vincent, Vincente Guerrero lived alongside indigenous in Tlaltelulco and had the ability to speak Spanish and the languages of the Indigenous.

During his presidency, he abolished slavery in Mexico. Guerrero was deposed in a rebellion by his Vice-President Anastasio Bustamante.

Early life

Vicente Guerrero was born in Tixtla, a town 100 kilometers inland from the port of Acapulco, in the Sierra Madre del Sur; his parents were María Guadalupe Rodríguez Saldaña, and Juan Pedro Guerrero. His father's family included landlords, wealthy farmers, and traders with broad business connections in the south, members of the Spanish militia, and gun and cannon makers. In his youth, he worked for his father's freight business that used mules for transport, a prosperous business during this time. His travels took him to different parts of Mexico where he heard of the idea of independence. There is controversy regarding Guerrero's ethnic origin, with some authors describing him as having both an Indigenous and African background. However, no portraits of him were made during his lifetime and those made posthumously may not be reliable. Fellow insurgent José María Morelos described him as a "young man with bronzed or tanned skin ("broncineo" in Spanish), tall and strong (N.B. "forbid", strapping, muscular), aquiline nose, bright and light-colored eyes and big sideburns". He was often supported by the indigenous people throughout the Revolution.

Vicente's father, Juan Pedro, supported Spanish rule, whereas his uncle, Diego Guerrero, had an important position in the Spanish militia. As an adult, Vicente was opposed to the Spanish colonial government. Guerrero enlisted in José María Morelos's insurgent army of the south in December 1810. He was married to María Guadalupe Hernández; their daughter María Dolores Guerrero Hernández married Mariano Riva Palacio, who was the defense lawyer of Maximilian I of Mexico in Querétaro, and was the mother of late nineteenth-century intellectual Vicente Riva Palacio.

Insurgent

Profile portrait of Vicente Guerrero on an early 19th-century snuffbox (enamelled brass on lacquered wood)

Abrazo of Acatempan, between Guerrero and Iturbide, Ramón Sagredo, 1870, oil on canvas

In 1810, Guerrero joined in the early revolt against Spain, first fighting in the forces of secular priest José María Morelos. When the Mexican War of Independence began, Guerrero was working as a muleteer and in an armory, in Tixtla, when the revolution started. He joined the rebellion in November 1810 and enlisted in a division that independence leader Morelos had organized to fight in southern Mexico.

Guerrero gained expertise in military strategy in the Battle of Zitltala. At the Battle of Tixtla, on May 26 of 1811, Jose Maria Morelos asked the advice of Vicente Guerrero on military strategy to be used on the town of Tixtla because that is when he was from that town. After the battle, Guerrero was told by Morelos to speak to the indigenous people of Tixtla because Guerrero was able to speak Nahuatl, the native language in Tixtla, because he had grown up in Tixtla. Morelos told Guerrero to inform the natives of their freedom from the Spanish. Historian William Sprague argued Guerrero was largely supported by the Native Americans throughout the Revolution due to his ability to speak and interact with the natives. By November 1811, Vicente Guerrero, alongside Jose Maria Morelos, took control of the highlands of the Mesa Del Sur, further building Guerrero's expericence as an insurgent.

Guerrero distinguished himself in the Battle of Izúcar, in February 1812, and had achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel when Oaxaca was claimed by rebels in November 1812. In a speech given to the indigenous people in Tlapa in 1815, Guerrero argued for citizenship to be extended to indigenous people to establish a larger free society for those originally not recognized by the Spanish. Initial victories by Morelos's forces faltered, and Morelos himself was captured and executed in December 1815.

Historian Mario S. Guerrero argued Guerrero's guerrilla tactics and successes were just as significant to winning the Mexican Revolution as notable battles. After the death of Jose Morelos, in March 1816,Vicente Guerrero, pledged his support behind the Board of Jaujilla. With the Spanish inpursuit, Guerrero used guerilla tactics he learned in his early military experience with Morelos. Guerrero fought in skirmishes with the Spanish in Piaxtla and Xonacatlán. Near Xonacatlán, Guerrero ambushed royalist Captain Jose Vicente Robles’s force of 150 troops, which led to a victory and a smaller force in pursuit of Guerrero.

In March 1816, According to the Historian William Sprague Vicente Guerrero after the death of Morelos and Juan Nepomuceno Rosains had quit the revolution taking a Spanish pardon, Guerrero had no commander thus Guadalupe Victoria and Isidoro Montes de Oca, gave him the position of "Commander in Chief" of the rebel troops. In 1816, the royal government under Viceroy Apodaca sought to end the insurgency, offering amnesty. Guerrero's father carried an appeal for his son to surrender, but Guerrero refused. He remained the only major rebel leader still at large and kept the rebellion going through an extensive campaign of guerrilla warfare. He won victories at Ajuchitán, Santa Fe, Tetela del Río, Huetamo, Tlalchapa, and Cuautlotitlán, regions of southern Mexico that were very familiar to him.

In November 16, 1820 after being appointed commander of the royal forces in Southern Mexico, Agustín de Iturbide was sent against Guerrero's forces. Guerrero was victorious against Iturbide, who realized that there was a military stalemate. Guerrero appealed to Iturbide to abandon his royalist loyalty and to join the fight for independence. Events in Spain had changed in 1820, with Spanish liberals ousting Ferdinand VII and imposing the liberal constitution of 1812 that the king had repudiated. Conservatives in Mexico, including the Catholic hierarchy, began to conclude that continued allegiance to Spain would undermine their position and opted for independence to maintain their control. Guerrero's appeal to join the forces for independence was successful. Guerrero and Iturbide allied under the Plan de Iguala and their forces merged as the Army of the Three Guarantees.

The Plan of Iguala proclaimed independence, called for a constitutional monarchy and the continued place of the Roman Catholic Church, and abolished the formal casta system of racial classification. While Iturbide during the writing of The Plan of Iguala, did not include mulattos and blacks in receiving rights. Vicente Guerrero advocated for all people in Mexico to receive equal protections under the law without regards to race and refused to agree to any alternative. Clause 12 was incorporated into the plan: "All inhabitants... without distinction of their European, African or Indian origins are citizens... with full freedom to pursue their livelihoods according to their merits and virtues." The Army of the Three Guarantees marched triumphantly into Mexico City on September 27, 1821.

Iturbide was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico by Congress. In January 1823, Guerrero, along with Nicolás Bravo, rebelled against Iturbide, returning to southern Mexico to raise rebellion, according to some assessments because their careers had been blocked by the emperor. Their stated objectives were to restore the Constituent Congress. Guerrero and Bravo were defeated by Iturbide's forces at Almolongo, now in the State of Guerrero, less than a month later. When Iturbide's imperial government collapsed in 1823, Guerrero was named one of Constituent Congress's ruling triumvirate.

1828 presidential election

Oil painting of Vicente Guerrero, by Ramón Sagredo (1865).

Guerrero was a liberal by conviction, and active in the York Rite Masons, established in Mexico after independence by Joel Roberts Poinsett, the U.S. diplomatic representative to the newly independent Mexico. The Scottish Rite Masons had been established before independence. Following independence the Yorkinos appealed to a broad range of Mexico's populace, as opposed to the Scottish Rite Masons, who were a bulwark of conservatism, and in the absence of established political parties, rival groups of Masons functioned as political organizations. Guerrero had a large following among urban Yorkinos, who were mobilized during the 1828 election campaign and afterwards, in the ouster of the president-elect, Manuel Gómez Pedraza.

In 1828, the four-year term of the first president of the republic, Guadalupe Victoria, came to an end. Unlike the first presidential election and the president serving his full term, the election of 1828 was highly partisan. Guerrero's supporters included federalist liberals, members of the radical wing of the York Rite Freemasons. During Guerrero’s campaign he advocated for political opportunities for all regardless of their race and wealth through universal suffrage in Mexico. General Gómez Pedraza won the September 1828 election to succeed Guadalupe Victoria, with Guerrero coming in second and Anastasio Bustamante, third through indirect election of Mexico's state legislatures. Gómez Pedraza was the candidate of the "Impartials", composed of Yorkinos concerned about the radicalism of Guerrero and Scottish Rite Masons (Escocés), who sought a new political party. Among those who were Impartials were distinguished federalist Yorkinos Valentín Gómez Farías and Miguel Ramos Arizpe. The U.S. diplomatic representative in Mexico, Joel Roberts Poinsett was enthusiastic about Guerrero's candidacy, writing

"....A man who is held up as ostensible head of the party, and who will be their candidate for the next presidency, is General Guerrero, one of the most distinguished chiefs of the revolution. Guerrero is uneducated, but possesses excellent natural talents, combined with great decision of character and undaunted courage. His violent temper renders him difficult to control, and therefore I consider Zavala's presence here indispensably necessary, as he possesses great influence over the general."

— Joel R. Poinsett, US minister for Mexico (i.e. Ambassador), about the character of Vicente Guerrero

Guerrero himself did not leave an abundant written record, but some of his speeches survive.

"A free state protects the arts, industry, science and trade; and the only prizes virtue and merit: if we want to acquire the latter, let's do it cultivating the fields, the sciences, and all that can facilitate the sustenance and entertainment of men: let's do this in such a way that we will not be a burden for the nation, just the opposite, in a way that we will satisfy her needs, helping her to support her charge and giving relief to the distraught of humanity: with this we will also achieve abundant wealth for the nation, making her prosper in all aspects."

— Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña, Speech to his compatriots

Two weeks after the September 1 election, Antonio López de Santa Anna rose in rebellion in support of Guerrero. As governor of the strategic state of Veracruz and former general in the war of independence, Santa Anna was a powerful figure in the early republic, but he was unable to persuade the state legislature to support Guerrero in the indirect elections. Santa Anna resigned the governorship and led 800 troops loyal to him in capturing the fortress of Perote, near Xalapa. He issued a political plan there calling for the nullification of Gómez Pedraza's election and the declaration of Guerrero as president.

El Parián market in the zócalo, lithograph, early 19th century.

In November 1828 in Mexico City, Guerrero supporters took control of the Accordada, a former prison transformed into an armory, and days of fighting occurred in the capital. President-elect Gómez Pedraza had not yet taken office and at this juncture he resigned and soon went into exile in England. With the resignation of the president-elect and the ineffective rule of the sitting president, civil order dissolved. On 4 December 1828, a riot broke out in the Zócalo and the Parián market, where luxury goods were sold, was looted. Order was restored within a day, but elites in the capital were alarmed at the violence of the popular classes and the huge property losses. With the resignation of Gómez Pedraza, and Guerreros's cause backed by Santa Anna's forces and the powerful liberal politician Lorenzo de Zavala, Guerrero became president. Guerrero took office as president, with Bustamante, a conservative, becoming vice president. One scholar sums up Guerrero's situation, "Guerrero owed the presidency to a mutiny and a failure of will on the part of [President] Guadalupe Victoria...Guerrero was to rule as president with only a thin layer of support."

Presidency

Government of Vicente Guerrero
Office	Name	Term
Foreign Affairs	José María Bocanegra	Apr. 1, 1829–Nov. 2, 1829
Agustín Viesca	Nov. 3, 1829–Dec. 18, 1829
Justice	Joaquín de Iturbide	Apr. 1, 1829–Apr. 7, 1829
José Manuel de Herrera	Apr. 8, 1829–Dec. 18, 1829
Finance	Bernardo González Angulo	Apr. 1, 1829–Apr. 13, 1829
	Francisco Moctezuma	Apr. 14, 1829–Apr. 17, 1829
Lorenzo de Zavala	Apr. 18, 1829–Nov. 2, 1829
José María Bocanegra	Nov. 3, 1829–Dec. 17, 1829
War	Francisco Moctezuma	Apr. 1, 1829–Dec. 18, 1829

A liberal folk hero of the independence insurgency, Guerrero became president on 1 April 1829, with conservative Anastasio Bustamante as his vice president. For some of Guerrero's supporters, a visibly mixed-race man from Mexico's periphery becoming president of Mexico was a step toward what one 1829 pamphleteer called "the reconquest of this land by its legitimate owners" and called Guerrero "that immortal hero, favorite son of Nezahualcoyotzin", the famous ruler of prehispanic Texcoco. Some creole elites (American-born whites of Spanish heritage) were alarmed by Guerrero as president, a group that liberal Lorenzo de Zavala disparagingly called "the new Mexican aristocracy".

Guerrero set about creating a cabinet of liberals, but his government already encountered serious problems, including its very legitimacy, since president-elect Gómez Pedraza had resigned under pressure. Some traditional federalists leaders, who might have supported Guerrero, did not do so because of the electoral irregularities. The national treasury was empty and future revenues were already liened. Spain continued to deny Mexico's independence and threatened reconquest.

A key achievement of his presidency was the abolition of slavery in most of Mexico. The slave trade had already been banned by the Spanish authorities in 1818, a ban that had been reconfirmed by the nascent Mexican government in 1824. A few Mexican states had also already abolished the practice of slavery, but it was not until September 16, 1829 that abolition across almost all of the nation was proclaimed by the Guerrero administration. Slavery at this point barely existed throughout Mexico, and only the state of Coahuila y Tejas was significantly affected, due to the immigration of slaveowners from the United States. In response to pressure from Texan settlers, Guerrero exempted Texas from the decree on December 2, 1829.

Guerrero called for public schools, land title reforms, industry and trade development, and other programs of a liberal nature. As president, Guerrero championed the causes of the racially oppressed and economically oppressed. Initially, the leader of the colonization of Texas, Stephen F. Austin, proved enthusiastic towards the Mexican government.

"This is the most liberal and munificent Government on earth to emigrants – after being here one year you will oppose a change even to Uncle Sam"

— Stephen Fuller Austin, 1829, letter to his sister describing Guerrero's Government of Mexico (and Texas)

During Guerrero's presidency, the Spanish tried to reconquer Mexico but were defeated at the Battle of Tampico.

Fall and execution

Image extracted from the book of Vicente Riva Palacio, Julio Zárate (1880).

Vicente Guerrero depicted at the Angel of Independence by Enrique Alciati, Mexico City.

Guerrero was deposed in a rebellion under Vice-President Anastasio Bustamante that began on 4 December 1829. Guerrero left the capital to fight in the south, but was deposed by the Mexico City garrison in his absence on 17 December 1829. Guerrero had returned to the region of southern Mexico where he had fought during the war of independence.

Open warfare between Guerrero and his opponent in the region Nicolás Bravo was fierce. Bravo had been a royalist officer and Guerrero was an insurgent hero. Bravo controlled the highlands of the region, including the town of Guerrero's birth, Tixtla. Guerrero had strength in the hot coastal regions of the Costa Grande and Tierra Caliente, with mixed race populations that had been mobilized during the insurgency for independence. Bravo's area had a mixed population, but politically was dominated by whites. The conflict in the south occurred for all of 1830, as conservatives consolidated power in Mexico City.

The war in the south might have continued even longer, but ended in what one historian has called "the most shocking single event in the history of the first republic: the capture of Guerrero in Acapulco through an act of betrayal and his execution a month later." Guerrero controlled Mexico's principal Pacific coast port of Acapulco. An Italian merchant ship captain, Francisco Picaluga, approached the conservative government in Mexico City with a proposal to lure Guerrero onto his ship and take him prisoner for the price of 50,000 pesos, a fortune at the time. Picaluga invited Guerrero on board for a meal on 14 January 1831. Guerrero and a few aides were taken captive and Picaluga sailed to the port of Huatulco, where Guerrero was turned over to federal troops. Guerrero was taken to Oaxaca City and summarily tried by a court-martial.

His capture was welcomed by conservatives and some state legislatures, but the legislatures of Zacatecas and Jalisco tried to prevent Guerrero's execution. The government's 50,000 peso payment to Picaluga was exposed in the liberal press. Despite pleas for his life, Guerrero was executed by firing squad in Cuilapam on 14 February 1831. His death did mark the dissolution of the rebellion in southern Mexico, but those politicians involved in his execution paid a lasting price to their reputations.

Many Mexicans saw Guerrero as the "martyr of Cuilapam" and his execution was deemed by the liberal newspaper El Federalista Mexicano "judicial murder". The two conservative cabinet members considered most culpable for Guerrero's execution, Lucas Alamán and Secretary of War José Antonio Facio, "spent the rest of their lives defending themselves from the charge that they were responsible for the ultimate betrayal in the history of the first republic, that is, that they had arranged not just for the service of Picaluga's ship but specifically for his capture of Guerrero."

Historian Jan Bazant speculates as to why Guerrero was executed rather than sent into exile, as Iturbide had been, as well as Antonio López de Santa Anna, and long-time dictator of late-nineteenth century Mexico, Porfirio Díaz. "The clue is provided by Zavala who, writing several years later, noted that Guerrero was of mixed blood and that the opposition to his presidency came from the great landowners, generals, clerics and Spaniards resident in Mexico...Guerrero's execution was perhaps a warning to men considered as socially and ethnically inferior not to dare to dream of becoming president."

Honors were conferred on surviving members of Guerrero's family, and a pension was paid to his widow. In 1842, Vicente Guerrero's remains were exhumed and returned to Mexico City for reinterment. He is known for his political discourse promoting equal civil rights for all Mexican citizens. He has been described as the "greatest man of color" to ever live.

Legacy

See also: Statue of Vicente Guerrero, Mexico City

Guerrero is a Mexican national hero. The state of Guerrero is named in his honour. Several towns in Mexico are named in honor of this famous general, including Vicente Guerrero in Durango, Vicente Guerrero in Baja California and the Colonia Guerrero.

According to historian Theodore G. Vincent, In 1831 after Vicente Guerrero’s death, Vicente Guerrero’s wife, Guadalupe, daughter, Dolores, and former supports of Guerrero formed a political thought group. Vincent titled these supporters as, “Guerreroistas." As a Guerreroistas, historian Vincent argues that they believed in similar ideals of equal rights for all races.

Vicente Guerrero by his Guerreroistas is often mentioned as it pertains to race and linage using his legacy of the revolution to support their actions. According to Theodore G. Vincent, Guerrero’s grandson, Vicente Riva Palacio, influenced by his family of Guerreroistas received the opportunity, from Guerrero’s “puro” political party in 1861, to investigate the Spanish Inquisition in Mexico and published over 38,000 pieces of evidence of Spanish abuse and Mexican opposition to it. Vincente Riva Palacio, according to Vincent attributed his beliefs and political actions to his mother Dolores and connects Palacio directly to Guerrero beliefs and Guerreroistas. According to historian Theodore Vincent, in 1986, Antonio Riva Palacio referenced his linage being connected to Vicente Guerrero and his motivation to continue Vicente Guerrero’s legacy of equality and equity for all Mexicans no matter their racial background.

According to the historian and politician Lorenzo de Zavala, who published in his book, Ensayo Historico De Las Revolutions De Mexico, Desde 1808 Hasta 1830, an encounter Vicente Guerrero had with his father in 1817. According to Zavala, Vicente Guerrero was approached by his father to lay down his arms and take a Spanish pardon and Vicente replied, "Companions, you see this respectable old man, he is my father. He comes to offer me money and position in the name of the Spaniards. I have always had respect for my father, but my country comes first.” These words contribute to mythology surrounding Guerrero that historian Theodore Vincent argues makes up Mexican culture. According to the Center of Documentation and Analysis, in 2007, Guerrero's words, "La Patria es Primero," has been placed in gold writing above the Mexican Chamber of Deputies in honor of Guerrero to represent his legacy and its affect on Mexican government and culture.

• 
  Statue in honor of Vicente Guerrero in Nuevo Laredo.
• 
  Monument to Vicente Guerrero in Mexico City (Parque Hundido).
• 
  Monument in the Colonia Guerrero.

See also

• Filipino immigration to Mexico
• Gaspar Yanga
• History of Mexico
• José María Larios
• Liberalism in Mexico
• List of presidents of Mexico
• List of wars involving Mexico

Further reading

• Anna, Timothy E. The Mexican Empire of Iturbide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1990.
• Anna, Timothy E. Forging Mexico, 1821–1835. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1998.
• Arrom, Silvia. "Popular Politics in Mexico City: The Parián Riot, 1828". Hispanic American Historical Review 68, no. 2 (May 1988): 245–268.
• Avila, Alfredo. "La presidencia de Vicente Guerrero", in Will Fowler, ed., Gobernantes mexicanos, Mexico City, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2008, t. I, p. 27–49. ISBN 978-968-16-8369-6.
• Bazant, Jan. "From Independence to the Liberal Republic, 1821–67" in Mexico since Independence, edited by Leslie Bethelll. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991.
• González Pedrero, Enrique. País de un solo hombre: el México de Santa Anna. Volumen II : La sociedad de fuego cruzado 1829–1836 : Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 968-16-6377-2.
• Green, Stanley C. The Mexican Republic: The First Decade 1823–1832. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1987.
• Guardino, Peter F. Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State: Guerrero 1800–1857. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996.
• Hale, Charles A. Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora. New Haven: Yale University Press 1968.
• Hamnett, Brian. Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824. New York: Cambridge University Press 1986.
• Harrell, Eugene Wilson. "Vicente Guerrero and the Birth of Modern Mexico, 1821–1831". PhD dissertation, Tulane University 1976.
• Huerta-Nava, Raquel (2007). El Guerrero del Alba. La vida de Vicente Guerrero. Grijalbo. ISBN 978-970-780-929-1.
• Ramírez Fentanes, Luis. Vicente Guerrero, Presidente de México. Mexico City: Comisión de Historia Militar 1958.
• Richmond, Douglas W. "Vicente Guerrero" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 616–618.
• Sims, Harold. The Expulsion of Mexico's Spaniards, 1821–1836. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1990.
• Sprague, William. Vicente Guerrero, Mexican Liberator: A Study in Patriotism. Chicago: Donnelley 1939.
• Vincent, Theodore G. The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero, Mexico's First Black Indian President. University of Florida Press 2001. ISBN 0813024226

External links

• Biografía de Vicente Guerrero en el Portal Oficial del Gobierno del Estado de Guerrero
• Vicente Guerrero: An Inventory of His Collection at the Benson Latin American Collection
• Vicente Guerrero on Mexconnect.com
• Guerrero on gob.mex/kids
• Letters about Vicente Guerrero hosted by the Portal to Texas History